Abstract
The writer of this paper details the exploration of the ocean floor which began in the 1940s and aided scientists in developing the theory of plate tectonics. This paper explores how the work of researchers like Albert Wegener and James Hutton and the study of plate tectonics helped predict with some degree of accuracy where and when an earthquake will strike as well as predict which of the world's active volcanoes will erupt, saving countless lives.
Topics covered in this report include:
The Theory of Continental Drift
This Dynamic Earth-Developing the Theory
Plate Tectonics
Works Cited

From the Paper
"Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch mapmaker, first suggested the possibility that the earth's landmasses were not fixed in 1520. He suggested that the Americas were once attached to Africa and Europe. They were then ripped apart by earthquakes and floods, creating three continents. It wasn't until the early part of this century, when a German meteorologist named Alfred L. Wegener became intrigued by this concept and the ideas set forth by other scientists that land bridges had been connected the continents at one time, but had then sunk into the ocean."

Tags:science, james, hutton, earthquake, volcano, geology, abraham, ortelius, alfred, wegener, ocean, earth

Abstract
This paper describes the continental drift and plate tectonic theories and traces their history, discusses the key players who were involved in developing the theories and examines the current state of scientific knowledge about Earth's geology and paleontology.

From the Paper
"The idea that the earth's continents have drifted has a long history. As long ago as 1596 the Dutch map maker Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus Ortelius suggested that the Americas were "torn away from Europe and Africa . . . by earthquakes and floods." He had been the first (and certainly not the last) to notice the apparent "jig-saw" fit of the bulge of eastern South America into the bight of Africa. (Kious and Tilling, 1999) In around 1850 A.D., a French scientist Antonio Snider-Pellegrini, while researching the similarity of the fossil plants and coal deposits in North American and European and concluded that the phenomenon could only be explained if the two continents had once been connected. In 1908 Frank B. Taylor of the United States invoked the notion of continental collision to explain the formation of some of the world's mountain ranges."

Tags:continents, land, masses, constantly, moving, collided, broken, apart, drifted, framented, oceans

Abstract
This paper first explains that the plate tectonic theory, which suggests that the Earth is made up of a dozen rigid plates, moving independently of each other, is used to explain the movement of the plates on the Earth's lithosphere. Next, the author relates the history of the development of this theory starting from the work of Alfred Wegener, a German geophysicist and meteorologist, in 1912. The paper examines that the studying ocean floor and earthquake and volcanic activity are commonly used as evidence to support the plate tectonic theory.

From the Paper
"By scanning the ocean floors with magnetometers, they hypothesized that the oceanic crust constantly reformed at the crest of the mid-ocean ridges. The further you move away from that ridge crest, the sediment would become increasingly older. As they had been able to see evidence of seafloor spreading, it was accepted that the tectonic plates had moved. They also endeavored to determine and document the earthquake and volcano activity across the globe, to see how it related to the oceanic trenches and underwater mountain ranges."

Tags:asthenosphere, continental drift theory, paleomagnetic polar changes, magnetic field, subduction zones

Abstract
The spreading of the seafloor under the Red Sea offers researchers a chance to study several important areas of science and apply what is learned to a better understanding of earth, earth's history, and perhaps other planets in the Solar System such as Mars. This paper reviews and examines existing science related to the tectonic plates (African and Arabian plates) beneath the Red Sea, the explanation for their movement apart and the dynamics of the hydrothermal activities that are part of the plate spreading itself. The Red Sea is of particular interest to scientists and this paper provides thorough reviews of the research conducted to date and examines why that research is of great value to science and to an understanding of how the Earth was formed. This paper includes figures and pictures.

Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Red Sea Geologic Evolution
Spreading Seafloor Dynamics Beneath the Oceans and Seas
Red Sea Rupturing: Recent Research
Red Sea Hydrothermal Processes: Link to Life and Link to Mars
Recent Red Sea Science: Discussion
Conclusion
Works Cited

From the Paper
"The Red Sea has become a geologic destination of preference for many scientists who are interested in plate tectonics, seafloor spreading, hydrothermal dynamics, the creation of minerals are ores from undersea activities, and more. As research continues using the latest technologies, students and other interested individuals will become informed and enlightened about the Red Sea and the implications for other undersea areas. It is vital for the health and well-being of the citizens on the planet for scientists and scholars to learn as much as possible about how the earth was formed and what it is doing at this stage in its evolution. The Red Sea is unlocking some of those mysteries, and will continue to reveal answers about the sea and the changing planet as time moves forward."

Tags:geology, plate tectonic movements, mars

From the Paper
"Plate Tectonics on Venus?


The plate tectonic theory is now widely accepted as a unifying basis for the physical geology of the earth as a whole. Not only does it explain most of the tectonic phenomena on Earth, but a number of key points have been well substantiated by paleomagnetic and seismologic studies (4). Venus, Earth's nearest neighbor, and similar in size, density, and age (8) might be expected to have similar tectonic activity. Indeed Soviet and U.S. explorations of Venus during the 60's and 70's revealed several features that could be interpreted as past or ongoing tectonism (Fig. 1). These included large calderas and arachnoids suggesting volcanism, dome uplifts, low ridge belts on planes, high mountain belts, heavily deformed areas called tesserae, and the circular coronae unique to Venus (9). Now that the..."

Abstract
The extinction-level event that occurred during the Permian period, often known as the Great Dying, forms the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geologic periods. During this time approximately 95 per cent of all marine species died out. This paper presents an overview of this time period and the explanatory theories regarding this event.

Paper Outline:
Introduction
Overview of Permian Extinction
Explanatory Theories Regarding the Permian Extinction
Conclusion

From the Paper
"It has been suggested that this increase in carbon-12 could be the result of upwelling of frozen methane hydrate from the ocean floor. Experiments have shown that a sea temperature rise of 5?C would be sufficient enough to gasify solid methane hydrate. This would lead to huge amounts of greenhouse gases being expelled into the atmosphere, and could have led to the mass extinction ("Permian-Triassic")."

Tags:plate, tectonics, supernova, meteor

Abstract
The writer of this paper presents an intensive examination of G.W. Hegel's philosophy of history. This paper compares and contrasts Hegel's beliefs and theories to those of Karl Marx. This paper discusses the speculation that renowned historian and philosopher Hegel created the philosophy of history based on his own life experiences and personal beliefs. The writer explores the argument that says history and philosophy are two entirely different entities, of which Hegel was deeply involved in both. This paper also touches on the experts who believe that Hegel was a believer in the theory of predestination. According to this school of thought, Hegel believed history to be an already fixed and unchangeable fact, that mankind only watches as a spectator. The writer contends and explains why Hegel's life and work is founded on the belief that history is nothing more than a dialectical progression. This paper also details Hegel's basic philosophy which is steeped in the belief that spirit and reason are fundamentally crucial to the development of history. Hegel believed that history is nothing more than spirit striving to find its own freedom.

Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Who He Was
His Philosophy
His Life
His Impact
Conclusion
References

From the Paper
"GW Hegel took on a most difficult task when he decided to spend his life philosophizing about history and mankind. As a philosopher of history Hegel had to walk a line between rewriting history to fit his philosophical beliefs and changing those beliefs to fit what was actually happening in history. It was a line he walked well though critics have pointed out what they believed to be discrepancies. His life work was based on trying to find the basic truths about history and mankind while at the same time examining the sub-topics that went along with those things by natural progression."

Tags:history, philosophy, karl, marx, theory, belief

Abstract
This paper studies the geological features of Napa Valley in California in regards to grape-growing conditions, for wine making. It gives a short history of the natural occurrences ranging from volcanic eruptions to plate tectonics that form Napa Valley's foundation today and explains why Napa Valley is ideally suited for the production of quality wines.

Outline:
Geology and soil
Bedrock
Topography
Climate
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Naturally, the topography of Napa Valley has a significant influence on the region's climate, which can vary significantly by location, season, and time of day. As mentioned earlier, the coastal Mayacamas mountains affect the climate in other areas of Napa Valley. The Mayacamas can be cool and wet, receiving the chilling winds and moisture from the Pacific. On the other hand, they block cool air and humidity from reaching the Vacas range, which is warmer and dryer as a result. In essence, Napa Valley serves as a buffer between the cool coastal regions of Northern California and the hotter Vacas range. It can grow high- and low-humidity grapes within miles of each other."

Tags:wine, California

Abstract
In this article, the writer explains that the islands of New Zealand lie at a subduction zone between the Pacific plate and the Indian-Australian plate. This location on the unstable edge of the tectonic plates, part of the Pacific Ocean's "Ring of Fire", has resulted in an active geological history and present. Surrounded on all sides by undersea ridges and trenches, faults crisscross both islands. The writer discusses that these major Pacific fault lines account for volcanic activity, frequent earthquakes, glaciers and a mountain range that stretches almost uninterrupted from Milford Sound at the bottom of the South Island to Cape Reinga at the uppermost tip of the North Island. This paper includes descriptions of the most dramatic examples of geothermal activity around the country.

From the Paper
"Earthquakes are another manifestation of the collision of the Pacific tectonic plate and the Indian-Australian tectonic plate. On average, 14,000 earthquakes are seismographically recorded in the New Zealand area each year. Of these, 100 to 150 are large enough to be felt. Since 1855, there have been fourteen earthquakes recorded that registered over 7.0 on the Richter scale. According to The Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences web site, to the south of New Zealand the Australian plate is being forced under the Pacific plate. Under the South Island, the two plates push past each other sideways, and east of the North Island the Pacific plate is being forced under the Australian plate.
"In Wellington, New Zealand's capital city, earthquakes thrust land upward more than five feet in 1848 and 1855, creating a peninsula out of an island. The area lies directly across on of the most active fault lines on the North Island. In 1931 an earthquake registering 7.9 on the Richter scale struck Hawkes Bay, destroying almost the entire town of Napier and causing damage along most of the coast. Two hundred fifty-eight people were killed and tens of thousands were left homeless."

Tags:New Zealand, geology, volcano, geothermal, earthquake, subduction zone