Abstract This paper discusses the development of gendertheory by reflecting on the underlying nature of cultural thinking that both assures and enforces secondary status for women. The author points out that the two major and opposing modern theories employed to explain the reasons for the universal devaluation of women are based either on biological determinism or on social and cultural factors. The paper relates that one of the roles that women perform is to act as the converting agency between nature and culture by the socialization of children. The paper includes some long quotations.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Gendering the Sexes
Nature and Culture
Sex is to Gender as Nature is to Culture
From the Paper "The culture/nature association is in itself a product of culture, as are all contemporary thoughts and ideas, with women being delegated to an inferior role within society due to her apparent dependency on the male, which is brought about through her ability to procreate. Born within their perspective cultures, the majority of women reflect their surrounding environment, and normally accept its given values and customs - although there is some debate as to the reasons for this. De Beauvoir, quite rightly, points out "that in her heart of hearts she finds confirmation of the masculine pretensions" while accepting her "misfortune"."
An examination of the theories of crime and gender put forward in the article, "Gender and Crime: Toward a Gendered Theory of Female Offending," written by Emilie Steffensmeier.
Abstract This paper examines gendered criminology theory. It specifically analyzes the article, "Gender and Crime: Toward a Gendered Theory of Female Offending," written by Emilie Steffensmeier. The paper discusses the content of the article and looks at the author's views and arguments related to theories of crime that take into account female and gender difference.
From the Paper "Possibly the most significant of the key components is the focus on contextually. This aspect has been largely ignored by other theoretical approaches. The study is also significant in the incorporation into its theoretical framework of gender roles and stereotypes in the explanation of crime. For example, the significance and utility of the gendered perspective as advocated by this theory can be seen it its ability to explain why the reportage of female crime is highest in the category of minor offences, such as shoplifting ands passing bad checks. This aspect is seen against the tendency for women to focus on relationship aspects and protection of their families, whereas these crimes in a male context are largely the result of status protection. It is felt that this gendered theory holds a great degree of promise for future exploratory understanding of this complex issue"
Abstract This paper explains that one of the most important theories posed by gender identity scholars is that the distinction of two sexes, male and female as well as the distinction of two genders, man and woman, is questionable. It points out that the existence of hermaphrodites and other bodies of indeterminate gender calls into question the bifurcation of gender, as well as the division of "sex" into male and female categories. The writer also discusses how gender roles tend to be solidified fairly stringently in our culture along lines of male and female alone.
From the Paper "Sex is a biological given. Some animal species have one sex, some have two, and some have more than two. This is interesting to scientists perhaps, in terms of its physical construction. However, gender is what culture "does" with these distinctions of physiology. Gender is how culture interprets the apparent biological differences between particular human bodies of different sexual anatomy. What does it mean, for instance, that a certain body may be capable of giving birth later in life, and another body may not? It is here, in the distinctions between bodies observed and imposed by our culture, where sociologists and theorists of gender identity find their theoretical interests aroused, poised for deconstructive action."
Abstract This paper discusses gendertheories and the way in which gender attitudes begin at birth and are constantly reconstructed by societal expectations. The paper discusses the possibility of changing gender attitudes, however concedes that society would need to be restructured without these beliefs, and that that is highly unlikely.
From the Paper "Gender and Society Society has created a world in which people consider gender foremost in their lives. Judith Lorber contends that in every element of the social order society constructs expectations for people based on gender beliefs, and that without thought society conforms to these ideas, creating a continuous cycle of a world that is based on gender theories (13). Parents begin the cycle of gender attitudes that are the product of societal thought. While these gender beliefs may be varied depending on the country that has created them, they remain with men and women throughout the duration of their lives. Many contend that changing gender attitudes can be accomplished within the social order, and yet, these same theorists acknowledge that in order to change gender beliefs society would have to be restructured without gender ideas to alter the foundation that currently exists in life."
Abstract This paper explores how man defines himself in terms of gender. Several theories of gender identification are presented, each within its own particular field. The author gives examples of the biological basis of gender, the psychological basis, cultural perspectives, and socially constructed theories. Additionally, the main character from "Six Degrees of Separation" is used as an example of gender identity through social constructs. The paper concludes that gender is continuously defined through a lifetime of experiences.
Outline
Biological Arguments Gender Psychological Theories of Gender Cross Cultural Perspective and Gender Identity
Socially Constructed GenderTheories and Gender as a Social Institution
Six Degrees of Separation
From the Paper "Kimmel suggests that gender is not something that someone is born with but rather is a social institution that people create as a result of interaction, beliefs and values. Gender is an institution that people either widely accept as one way or another. Within any given society there are cultural norms that people identify with and that help shape their behaviors, values and beliefs. Gender differences thus can be easily created as an institution and can be representative of inequality when that inequality is supported or constructed by society at large (Kimmel, 2000). Kimmel suggests that inequalities are created as norms and arise within relationships, within families and even in the workplace or any other environment in which people work intimately (Kimmel, 2000). "
Abstract The paper examines gender-based evaluations of crime. The paper explains the difference between conflict theories and consensus theories and shows how John Hagan's power-control theory of gender and delinquency seems to be primarily a conflict, anti-feminist theory. The paper argues that gender-based theories are a most welcome innovation in the field of criminology, rectifying a profound insensitivity to the fact that women exist and allowing policies that actively combat sexist biases and stereotypes. The paper relates that many feminist theories of crime must be conflict theories, due to the fact that feminism itself is arguably built upon a conflict theory view of the world.
From the Paper "In the broadest sense, sociological and criminological theories tend to fall into two very different camps: conflict theories and consensus theories. Criminological conflict theories emphasise the political nature of crime, and view society as being based on conflict, as opposed to consensus. Conflict theories posit the existence of two or more groups in conflict, such as two different classes, or many different groups vying to achieve their own ends. An appearance of consensus is created by using laws to enforce consensus, by for example enforcing the law. On the other hand, consensus theory focuses on the stability of society, and sees the maintenance of this stability as a central endeavour - in which most people participate willingly, while some have to be coerced by law enforcers."
Abstract This essay examines the emerging trend and, indeed, necessity to distinguish between the two terms "gender" and "sex". It examines the introduction and usage of both terms and the subsequent historical development, including the power benefits that the biological reductionism of "sex theory" encompasses. Through specific reference to sociological schools of thought, such as structural functionalism, feminist critique, role theory, social constructionism and post-structuralist theory, an argument for the need for distinction between "gender" and "sex" is established. With references to Foucault, Derrida, and Judith Butler, this essay examines the need for a biological ("sex") and social ("gender") specificity of sexuality, proposing a conceptually accurate path forward for the future.
From the Paper "The terms ?sex role,? ?sex role socialisation,? ?gender role,? and the term "role" itself, have become so confused and definitionally abstract that it is often inadequate or even incorrect to use such terms. Many individuals do however. The terms "sex" and "gender" are infinitely bandied about, consistently interchanged, and often stand proxy for one another, in every imaginable discourse and social institution. This is because "sex" and "gender" are the foundational concepts upon which society is built. Sex and gender is integral to every social structure, having far-reaching implications that shape individuals? opportunities for safety, employment, education, family, legal access, fecundity, knowledge production and much, much more. However, the challenge here is to understand such implications within a conceptually accurate framework. The development of sex/gender theorising has met this challenge, and the fact that some sociologists today reject the terms "sex roles" and "sex role socialisation" is a reflection of the changing and developing nature of the theoretical framework. It is only through an examination of the history of sex/gender theory however that it is possible to determine how and why these same sociologists have rejected the frameworks that they have."
Tags: biological, critique, feminist, functionalism, gender, post, reductionism, sex, structural, structuralist, theory
Abstract This paper discusses Agnew's strain theory of criminology that deviant behavior is likely to be triggered by virtue of anger. Research that shows that males are more at risk of criminal behavior is included in the paper. The paper then studies this research together with the strain theory to explore the several possible associations that suggest possible mechanisms explaining the apparent greater susceptibility of males to the negative consequences of stressful stimuli defined by general strain theory. The paper also analyzes social relationships and copings skills that females have that enable them to overcome negative emotions and anger to generate deviance and criminality.
Outline:
Agnew's Strain Theory of Criminology
Strain Theory and Gender Differences in Criminal Conduct
Male Violence as a Function of "Doing Gender"
Bibliography
From the Paper "Expressing emotions and sharing frustrations is hardly the only aspect of gender-specific socialization that affects males and predisposes them disproportionately to the risk of reacting to strains in deviant, criminal, or violent manners. To a certain extent, males of most biological species including human beings are larger and more powerful than females as a result of evolutionary necessity. Higher testosterone levels and other inherent differences between the genders contributes to the greater male tendency to confrontations and to violence under the influence of comparable internal frustrations and external provocations."
Tags: criminal behavior, theory anger, social relationships
Abstract In "Gender Trouble", Judith Butler provides an in-depth inquiry into the nature of social differences between the genders in the tradition of feminist critical theory. This paper explains how, building upon the traditional theories of those such as Julia Kristeva, Butler addresses the role of women in the psychology of Freud, Lacan, Foucault and others. It shows that, rather than taking Kristeva's approach, however, Butler critiques Freud in another way, questioning the idea of male or female self-identification. Butler wishes to demonstrate that gender is an act, a set of customs and norms that are internalized for the sake of maintaining social ties and interactions in a "male vs. female" world.
From the Paper "Butler illustrates that there is a category, ?woman,? and seeks to discover its nature. She notes that in the work of Lacan and his contemporaries, "woman" was always the other of ?man,? and that women were not part of the equation: if one could say that psychology has a protagonist, the protagonist of the work of psychologists like Lacan and Freud was male or at the very least traditional. However, she notes that in feminist theory, the existence of the same category, "women" precludes other categorical notions that could preclude gender identity, such as race or class identity. As such, she claims that women are estranged in both psychoanalytical and feminist equations and that "women" is seen as a stronger category than other qualifiers such as class or cultural tradition."
An analysis of feminist social theory's impact on sociology in terms of the validity of issues of sex, gender and oppression, using Mary Wollstonecraft's 'A Vindication of the Rights of Woman' as a reference.
1,700 words (approx. 6.8 pages), 0 sources, 2002, $ 55.95
Abstract The following paper examines how both blacks and women have experienced exclusion and discounting of their sociological positions based solely on either their color or gender, regardless of the "rationality" of their arguments in the past. This paper discusses how feminist sociologists are insisting that what has been labeled their "radical feminist" approaches to the development and application of social theory be given the same weight as that of men in the field and the experiences and culture of half the world's population be considered in the study of the whole.
From the Paper ?In January 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft completed A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, the first major work of feminist theory. She was one of many 18thcentury feminists who were responding to the wave of social revolution sweeping Europe and America, hoping to assure that women would be considered entitled to the same natural rights as men. Male theorists who developed and enforced the natural rights doctrine did not accept the feminist position. Their world view of the Enlightenment was predicated upon the assumption that the rational world is superior to, and must control, the nonrational world; men rational and therefore the lords of creation and had the right to impose their "reason" on all without it: women, nonhuman creatures and the earth itself. The view of women as excluded from legal personhood was legalized by Blackstone in his common law stating that the "very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during marriage, or at least is incorporated and consolidated into that of the husband". This meant, that as non-persons, married women had no property rights, no control over inheritance, no control over custody and no right to bring civil suit.?
Abstract This article studies the works of Judith Butler and George Mosse in order to discuss a definition of gender and masculinity. The writer discusses that Butler has controversial theories about gender roles and the need to discard current concepts of sex and gender. In this paper, the writer looks at her views of feminist theory. The writer explains how Mosse looks at the development of masculinity from the mid-1800s.
From the Paper "Judith Butler considers herself primarily committed to feminist theory and believes that gender comes from performativity. She distinguishes performativity from performance by explaining that the former presumes a subject but the latter does not accept the idea of a subject. Butler does not believe in distinctions between male and female but rather that they are based on performativity. For instance she does not see such factors as the ability to become pregnant, as being necessary to define a woman. She points out that there are females very young ... "
Abstract This paper explains that feminism is a much lesser studied theory than liberalism or realism in the field of international relations; nonetheless, it deserves attention because women have had an impact on the foundation of international relations. The author points out that feminism, along with other gendertheories, are based on three assumptions: 1) Women should be fully incorporated into the field of international relations to ensure an equal voice for everyone, 2) there should be a distinct and noticeable re-focusing of international relations and 3) it assumes that post-positivist methodology should be used in order to deconstruct gender issues at the international level. This paper explains that radical feminism is opposed to integrating existing feminism into any frameworks because it is trying to create a distinctly feminine analysis, which isn't subservient to a male agenda the way other theories have been in the past: They criticize both liberal and critical theories of feminism.
From the Paper "The next category of feminism that we are going to take a look at is Marxist or critical feminist theory. This theory largely suggests that the problem in the world is capitalism, which has resulted in making women work as a labor of love, for no economic reward, in a sense rendering them invisible. This theory searches for the answer to why women and men have appeared in international relations, instead of a focus on how, like so many other subcategories of feminism. To look at it from a different perspective, critical theory asks us questions like: "What ideas about the appropriate relationship between women and men, feminine and masculine, inform the practices of particular actors and institutions? And what material conditions and social forces contribute to the reproduction of those practices? Finally, are attempts to alter those understandings and practices facilitated or hindered by prevailing material conditions?""
Tags: equality, norms, patriarchical, rights, theory
Abstract This paper discusses serial killers, specifically the roles of gender in determining serial killers. It looks at some of the theories of what drives serial killers and suggests that many of the theories are based on male case studies that often do not hold true for female serial killers. It also presents a study in the form of a survey to illustrates its hypothesis.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Hypothesis
Participants
Method
From the Paper "The idea that all serial killers are driven by sexual fantasies has been challenged by some theorists, who suggest that these murders are less defined by sex -- even when it plays a functional role in their execution -- and more driven by some other psychological aspect, such as the desire for power or status. (It is somewhat ironic that theorists have traditionally argued that rape is always about power, rather than sex, but that serial murder is always about sex) According to Buss, serial killers may actually be motivated by status. Serial killers, in this idea, are seeking revenge on the world for denying them the status they feel they have earned, while mass murderers are attempting to gain or maintain status by killing those who threaten it. This might be applied both to sadistic sexual murders and to what might be called "feminine" murders of intimate associates."
A look at the clinical diagnosis of gender identity disorder, the cause and prevalence of the disorder, and controversies within the counseling profession related to gender identity disorder.
Abstract This paper reports the diagnostic criteria and typical course of gender identity disorder including the theories of this disorder and the etiology and prevalence of this disorder. Evidence-based treatments found to be most effective are also reported as well as a consensus and controversies of the disorder in this field of study.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Clinical Diagnosis
Cause and Prevalence of GID
Controversies in the Field
Evidence-Based Therapies
Summary and Conclusion
From the Paper "The work of Duncan Osborne entitled: "Voices- Identity Crisis" relates the condition and the controversies very well in a story that tells of a five-year-old boy whom he treated. Later the child was treated as an adult. Osborne relates that generally these children who have been diagnosed with gender identity disorder grow up to be homosexual. Osborne reports a study conducted in the early 1980's by Green who finds that, among 44 such boys with gender identity disorder that: "...75% were either gay or bisexual and one wanted sex reassignment.""
According to Osborne, Psychologist Kenneth J. Zucker, head of Toronto's Child and Adolescent Gender Identity Service at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, is a "leading GID expert who has seen roughly 625 children or adolescents since 1978." (2003) According to Osborne, Zucker states that: "The majority of kids will have resolved their gender dysphoria and identify themselves as gay. We're also going to find that around 15% have a significant gender dysphoria that has persisted into adolescence and young adulthood to the point where they are wanting sex reassignment. If we add on to that a small minority of kids who report being heterosexual, we're seeing a real range of outcomes." (Osborne, 2
Tags:theories, assigned sex, cross-sex roles, mood disorders, surgery
Abstract The paper begins by explaining why the feminist standpoint theory appears to have much in common with the social-science methodology of Michel Foucault. The research sets forth the context in which feminist standpoint theory emerged, and then discusses how Patricia Hills Collins extends the theory to include race and gender factors of analysis and critique.
From the Paper "Feminist standpoint theory does not have recourse to Foucault's "structure" terminology, but the location of its beginning point is oppositional to dominant cultural ideology. Feminist standpoint theory, beginning, as the term implies, from the perspective or standpoint of women's relationship to dominant culture, considers the decisive social relationship to be power; and further, does not see women as a group in the position of social power, but rather distinct or different from that position. This implies that the position of social power will be the object of scrutiny from the perspective not of power but of its relative distance from power. Standpoint theory is at least as concerned with social and psychological norms, customs, practices, and attitudes as with physical strength, as far as power's primary indicators and legitimators are concerned. In Foucault's formulation, the power referent has to do not (or not merely) with the power relationships between criminal law and criminals, or even with the encounter between privileged and oppressed classes, but with the whole of ordinary social experience. Power, he says, "produces effects . . . at the level of knowledge" (1980:59). These effects represent factors of feminist analysis."
