Abstract This paper looks at the problem that hate crimes present to society. The paper provides some FBI statistics on hate crimes, discusses some of the problems associated with combating the crimes, looks at legislation enacted in the United States designed to counter them, and talks about hate crime prevention groups and how they can be effective in deterring hate crimes.
From the Paper "Legislation in the United States has established harsher penalties for hate crimes over the past decade, which has been welcomed by many people, but criticized by others. (Wikipedia) Some people argue that women and minorities, such as blacks and gays, are getting "special treatment" by the establishment of strict hate crime penalties. This narrow-minded view is one obstacle in investigating and controlling hate crimes. It can also be difficult for investigators to distinguish hate crimes from other crimes, because it is necessary not only to prove what events happened, but what the intention of the perpetrator was. They are usually detected by a background investigation of the accused perpetrator or by eyewitness reports. Circumstantial evidence can sometimes show the intent, such as a diary or journal belonging to the accused that established a biased mindset. Getting a hate crime conviction can also be very difficult because there are very strict rules decided on by the FBI. (Wikipedia)"
An investigation into the correlations between race and crime, as well as the discrimination that occurs when classification of crimes and its perpetrators come into account.
Abstract The paper explains and clarifies the perceptions of crime by gender and race in the belief that in crime, white males will likely fare better in the Criminal Justice system than minorities and women. The paper affirms that there is a need for further research regarding perceptions about men and women of various races regarding how they view crime by minority groups. The paper further states that there is a need to investigate why these perceptions have not been studied extensively over the past decade.
From the Paper "Other research, which has been conducted utilized a sample used for studying white-collar criminal careers. This research identified the broad range of white-collar crimes and criminals prosecuted in American federal courts. Researchers benefited form this method by, careful sampling techniques and rich data collected in their study. However, in the same token, researchers added detailed information on the number, timing, and types of other criminal events attributed to these offenders both before and after the offense that was the focus of the previous Yale study."
Abstract This paper discusses the position of women in crime statistics using sociological theory and studies. It examines the social, economic and other factors that may contribute to the increasing numbers representing women in crime statistics. Consideration is also given to the problems of official statistics and the influence of 'male-stream' sociology on such a subject with reference to studies by Heidensohn, Pollak, Campbell and Box.
From the Paper "When most people consider women and crime they normally do so according to the general consensus of women being the victims. In the same way as old and frail ladies, women, perhaps particularly young women, are viewed as a "high-danger" group and are generally thought to be more vulnerable and therefore more likely victims of crime. However when we consider the statistics, research, sociological theory and studies we realise that this is not necessarily the case; women are not always the victims and furthermore they are sometimes the actual perpetrators in criminal activity. Unlike topics such as the family, for which the preponderance of sociological research has been conducted by females, the sociological theories of crime are typically carried out by males, who, it could be argued, tend to focus more on the male experience of crime in their research. Male assumptions have therefore become rooted in the subject, which as Frances Heidensohn and other feminist sociologists argue, leads to a "gender blind" approach to sociology."
Abstract This paper discusses the concept of community policing. The author says that for certain types of crime, such as hate crimes, mob-related crimes and ritualistic crimes, police must look at the underlying causes of the crimes rather than just dealing with the perpetrators after the fact. The paper explains why these particular categories differ from other crimes, and why these categories require a different kind of approach from police.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Organized Crime Hate Crime Ritual Crimes Law Enforcement Perspective
Conclusion
From the Paper "Community policing is a term that is becoming increasingly common in police studies and practice. This is a natural result of the increase in the responsibility of the police in a complex and modern environment. This means that policing has to deal not only with the effects of crime but also with the underlying causes of criminal acts in order to be effective. This is especially the case with regard to forms of crime such as hate and ritual crimes which have sensitive and far-reaching social implications. In this regard the responsibility of the police is being shared with other institutions and the community in order to provide a more adequate and comprehensive solution to contemporary crime issues."
Abstract A research journal about the past and present aspects of rising crime rates in Britain. The author examines past crime statistics and cause of crime, as well as present increases in crime rates and how this can be changed to secure the future.
From the paper:
"There are aspects of the past, of the present, and aspect of the hopeful future that have influenced this thought. The past defines what crime is and how it affects people, what causes crime and criminals, how much crimes have changed, and why there are crimes. The present shows the rise in crime, current attitudes towards the crime rates, and what is currently being done to bring the rates down. Lastly, the look towards the future will encompass how the system will change to lower these rates, how rates are expected to change, how the public's attitude will change on how to lower the rates, as well as a note not to become too caught up in the solving of the problem."
Abstract This paper talks about the distorted picture created of the crime conditions in Europe and, in particular, in Britain, as a result of the volume of crimes that are committed, but unreported. The paper explains some of the reasons that crimes go unreported and how these unreported crimes, commonly referred to as 'the dark figure of crime', affect the overall picture of crime in a country. An example is given of U.S. crime rates, where violent crime rates have always been perceived to be high, but, in actuality, are lower than violent crime rates in industrialized nations in Europe.
From the Paper "The amount of crime in society gets known when it is reported to the police, through public response to victim surveys and studies of offenders who admit committing crime, and when transmitted to other agencies, such as hospital accident wards, battered women's refuge centers and similar ones (Young 2001). Other than these, the amount of crime committed is unknown. That unknown volume (of crime) that does not get reported, thus not registered, in criminal statistics, constitutes the dark figure of crime."
Abstract This paper presents an examination of natural crimes compared to legal crimes. The writer explores the difference between natural and legal crimes, gives examples of both and discusses which crimes are wrong in themselves and which ones are only crimes because they are deemed illegal.
From the Paper "In civilized society there are natural crimes and legal crimes. While they are all crimes when held against the state, local or federal statutes they are viewed differently in the eyes of those who are mandated to uphold and obey them. For the purpose of discussion natural crimes are crimes that are morally and ethically wrong and would be wrong regardless of what the law said about them, while legal crimes will be discussed as crimes in which the only obvious rationale for them being deemed illegal is that the government has deemed them as such. "
Abstract This paper looks at the distinction between natural crimes, also known as mala per se crimes, and legal crimes, also known as mala prohibita crimes. It looks at the FBI crime index and assesses whether these crimes are mala per se or mala prohibita.
From the Paper T"here are two major types of crimes natural crimes and legal crimes which are now referred to as mala per se crimes and mala prohibita crimes respectively. Crime A crime is defined by law as an act ..."
An insight into the different aspects of cyber crime including a definition, a short history, a few famous and important cases and ideas to curtail it.
Abstract This paper discusses cyber crime, criminal activity which targets computers and information, or which uses computers as the means of committing an offense. It examines how it is a very serious and complicated matter that cannot be taken lightly and how without a true understanding, public and private corporations can easily be mislead in the perspective of its gravity. It shows how this thinking opens up weaknesses in public and private computer systems that the cyber criminal could easily take advantage of and exploit for their own gain. It defines cyber crime, breaking it down into a number of sections giving examples of certain crimes that are often committed under each section. Then it provides a brief history describing the development of new laws for the new crimes, specific cases in history concerning cyber crime and also a description of where cyber crime is today and its impact on the individual and companies who are its victims.
From the Paper "Just like the world of street crime the world of cyber crime needs policing tactics and policing units. Yet the goal of the agencies are not really to prevent, but more to investigate crimes that have already happened; the reason for this is because in cyber space there is no physical area where police can patrol to stop crime. So if policing agencies cannot prevent attacks, not including the use of undercover online operations, then who can? This question can be answered in a few ways. Private companies usually hire experts in the field of computers who can find the companies? weaknesses and where they could be attacked and tighten up their network with certain defenses like firewalls, virus scanners, and other various programs. The individual, on the other hand, has to spend money on programs which will detect intrusions and viruses that have infiltrated their personal system. Private industries that create these programs which protect systems would be similar to companies who produce self-defense equipment and classes, because that is what these programs do; they target-harden and help a victim fight back against their attacker."
Abstract This paper examines and analyzes how theory helps our understanding of crime and the crime problem. The focus of the discussion is on crime in Australia, and focuses specifically on the media's tendency to sensationalize crime stories and incite fear of crime in order to sell newspapers, pursue political agendas, or make journalistic reputations. .
Tags: SOCIOLOGY / CRIME AND DEVIANCE (ISSUES, THEORY, THEORISTS), crime theory
Abstract The topic of cyber crimes encompasses many different crimes. This report defines cyber crime, and goes into depth regarding the specific crime of identity theft. It includes the definition of cyber crime, and specific techniques used to obtain an individual's personal information used to establish false identity, how to prevent the information from being compromised, as well as additional information should one become a victim of identity theft. This paper also includes real world examples stemming from personal experience.
Outline.
Abstract
What is Cyber Crime?
Identity Theft: what is it?
Types of identity theft
Keeping you safe from such crimes What to do if you become a victim
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "Browsing through the US Department of Justice's Website for the Computer Crime & Intellectual Property Section, cyber crime is a handful of crimes where the primary method of operation or M.O. involves the use of computers or attacks on secure electronic data. The scope of these crimes includes unauthorized access to networks, computers databases, fraudulent money transfers or electronic wire transfers, piracy, espionage and gambling. The invention of the internet creates a new place for people to conduct business, and a very discrete and anonymous place for criminals. Everyday more and more people engage in commerce online, accessing bank accounts and making purchases entirely online. The internet creates a larger arena for crime, and creates more instances of opportunity for crime that requires little technical knowledge and provides a tempting cloak for a person to commit crimes. There are more and more crimes that have moved from the streets to an online environment, taking everyday crime and turning it into a cyber crime. Anything that is illegal, and is committed using computer technology in this virtual environment is cyber crime."
This paper covers some recent research into white-collar crime and ties it in with the rational-choice theory of crime. This paper focuses more on the causal aspect of white-collar crime than on the outcome aspect of it.
Abstract This paper discusses how the existing stereotype of a white-collar offender as a high-ranking executive may be flawed. The demographics of white-collar offenders suggest most of them are middle-class white males. It looks at the theories as to why such people would commit these crimes and explains that most theories center on the rational-choice decision making process because of the protracted and diligent nature of white-collar crimes. It further discusses how, within the white-collar inmate community, there also appear to be two separate pathways to white-collar crime: one marked by previous run-ins with the law before turning to white-collar crime, and the other one marked by no run-ins with the law.
From the Paper "White-collar crime has gained increased notoriety in recent years with the downfall of Enron, WorldCom, and insider trading by Martha Stewart. Despite its increased awareness in the public, its etiology is not well known. One of the main reasons for criminologists' naivete regarding white-collar crime is the lack of scientific research on the topic. The relative lack of data arises from an array of political, sociological, penological, and funding issues. The data that is available to researchers indicates that the existing stereotype of white-collar crime offenders is flawed."
Abstract The writer of this well-researched paper focuses on the consistent rise in both computer and internet related crimes in the U.S. and the United Kingdom, as well as the strategies that have been implemented to fight these illegal acts. This paper supplies relevant statistics and data regarding this particular topic. The writer contends and details why the term cyber-crime falls into three basic categories: Software piracy, electronic break-ins and computer sabotage. This paper cites several cases of cyber-terrorism, in which computer hackers shut down various public and/or government computer websites, including those of the CIA, FBI and the U.S. Air Force. This paper also delves into the various measures taken to prevent cyber-crimes including: The European Union, which established the Committee of Experts on Crime in Cyberspace, which drafted a binding convention to facilitate international cooperation in the investigation and prosecution of individuals suspected of computer crimes. The U.S. has also developed legislation that deals with specific forms of cyber-crimes, as well as providing copyright protection for various computer programs, which are now recognized by the courts.
From the Paper "Not all attacks are external. Sabotage by employees can also occur. The above Trade and Industry survey also found that almost a third of UK firms had dealt with up to five disciplinary cases of Internet abuse in 2002. Carelessness by employees is almost as threatening as intentional crime. Users make passwords too simple, reveal them when asked, or write them on a post-it near their PC. Carelessness can be countered by the implementation and enforcement of systems use policies and training.
Lastly, because of the fear of terrorism since 9/11, numerous cities throughout the United States have put together disaster plans as well as had practice drills in case the worst occurs. It may be just as important to prepare for the worst for cybercrimes."
Abstract This paper examines current issues in computer crimes. The paper describes the crimes, the trends in crimes and the ways in which individuals and governments can fight the crimes that are collectively referred to as "computer crimes."
From the Paper "There are no reliable statistics on the amount of computer crime and the economic loss to victims. This is partly because the victims do not detect many of these types of crimes and many of the crimes that are detected are not reported to authorities. This is partly because the losses are often difficult to calculate or quantify especially when information is accessed and copied. It is difficult to place a cost on this type of computer trespassing and theft."
Tags: hacker, cracker, computer crime, federal law, cooperation among agencies, prosecution, theft, copying, copyright infringement, cost of computer crimes
Abstract This fifteen page undergraduate paper examines war crimes and crimes against humanity, which are universally condemned as the most extreme violations of fundamental human rights. The writer notes that tragically, history has proven that atrocities and genocide are rarely prevented, for the international community is usually incapable of taking action, unwilling to intervene, or unaware of the scope of the crimes. Further, the writer points out that just as tragically, the infamy of war crimes and crimes against humanity is compounded by the fact that the perpetrators usually escape justice. In order to analyze why this is the case and assess what this demonstrates about the nature of international governance, the writer explains that it is necessary to acknowledge the inherent conflict between international law and state sovereignty, for independent laws and policies often prevent effective prosecution.
From the Paper "War crimes and crimes against humanity are universally condemned as the most extreme violations of fundamental human rights. Tragically, history has proven that atrocities and genocide are rarely prevented, for the international community is usually incapable of taking action, unwilling to intervene, or unaware of the scope of the crimes. Just as tragically, the infamy of war crimes and crimes against humanity is compounded by the fact that the perpetrators usually escape justice."
