Abstract The paper explains the evolution of free trade and looks at the GeneralAgreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The paper also discusses the North American Free TradeAgreement (NAFTA) and its effects. The paper explores free trade advantages for the United States and the benefits of the free tradeagreements. The paper explains the general advantages and disadvantages of free trade and shows how the free trade regime has a series of positive effects for the United States.
Outline:
Introduction
The Evolution of Free Trade The GeneralAgreement on Tariffs and Trade The North American Free TradeAgreement and its Effects
The Free Trade Advantages on the United States
Free TradeAgreements' Effects on the United States
General Advantages and Disadvantages of Free Trade Conclusions
From the Paper "By the term "free trade" economists refer to an idealized market model, where countries trade their goods or services without being limited and inhibited by tariffs and taxes imposed by governments and non-tariff barriers (Wikipedia, 2007). Some say that in order to have real free trade, perfect competition is required, while others say that the absence of inhibitory taxes is enough for the free trade to take place."
"Although free trade is considered by some economists to have important advantages, that surpass the eventual disadvantages, free trade has its share of opponents, like some of the nationalists, communists, agricultural and manufacturing interests, and anti-globalization and some labor campaigners."
Abstract Examines the WTO agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS). History of agreement. Issues involved: royalties, patents, trademarks, inventions. International agreements. Tie-in to GATT. Foreign trade. Quotas & protective tariffs. Controversy over WTO & TRIPS. Access to patented pharmaceuticals. Public imae of WTO. Gap between poor & rich countries.
From the Paper "This research examines the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS). The research will set forth a brief history of how the agreement came into being and then discuss the major sections of the accord, as well as issue fronts that public scrutiny of it has produced, with a view toward forecasting possible lines of development.
The origin of the World Trade Organization can be traced to two treaties negotiated in Paris, one in 1833 and another 50 years later. In 1833 the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property became the first treaty in history aimed at assisting creators of patentable industrial products of one signatory country in obtaining protection "for their intellectual creations" (WIPO, 2001) in the other signatory count..."
Abstract This paper describes the historical conditions which facilitated the birth of an international trading community. It also analyzes agreements which exists between trading countries and other institutions such as GATT, the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
From the Paper "After the end of World War II, many of the leaders of the world's countries realized that one of the lessons that they needed to learn was the damaging nature of the protectionist monetary and trade policies that grown steadily in the years since 1871 and especially the protectionists trade restrictions that had been thrown up by various countries during the interwar years. Thus began what was in many ways ? although certainly not all?a spirit of anti-protectionist multilateral trade agreements and other forms of international economic cooperation. While there have certainly been some exceptions to this general trend, open borders to trade and international monetary policy seem likely only to be strengthened as the world's economy continues to become more globally linked and dependent ? this despite the concerns of many in the labor and environmental movements about the costs to the worker and to the earth of unrestrained trade."
Tags: multilateral, tariff, trade, customs, duty, World, Bank, finance, development, Third, World
Abstract The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established by the Uruguay Round of the GeneralAgreement on Tariffs and Trade and introduced an important new phase into the development of international trade regulation. This paper discusses the origin, history, function and organizational structure of the WTO.
From the Paper "For the first time in history, an international trade organization established a regulatory and judicial structure through which it could regulate virtually every aspect of global trade. The WTO is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland and is headed by a biennial Ministerial Conference. Operations are overseen by a Director-General, who heads the Secretariat, and by the General Council, which comprised of representatives of each member state and meets as required to take action on issues brought forward by either the Trade Policy Review Body or the Dispute Settlement Body."
Abstract This paper explains WTO's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), negotiated in the 1986-94 Uruguay round of talks, which introduced intellectual property rules into the multilateral trading system for world-wide trade, apply to all WTO member countries and protect copyrights, trademarks, geographical indication, industrial design, patents, and trade secrets. The author points out that TRIPS had a unequal impact on developed and developing countries because the developing countries rely more on the production and export of consumable goods, while the developed countries, particularly the European Union and United States, rely on export-based revenues from copyright licensing, which means the TRIPS Agreement actually works against the developing countries by driving up their import bills and resulting in greater transfer of wealth from the poor to the rich countries. The paper recommends that a completely new international tradeagreement should be negotiated; the developing countries should be well-advised to be better prepared and more assertive in the next round of trade negotiations and should be better off if they avoid the temptation of accepting short-term gains in exchange for long-term losses.
Table of Contents
Overview of TRIPS
Basic Principles
Transition Period
Areas of Application
Enforcement
Impact of TRIPS on Developing Countries
Application of TRIPS on Medicines
Biopiracy
Terminator Crops
Why Did the Developing Countries Agree to TRIPS?
The Other Side of the Picture
Conclusion
From the Paper "Even low-technology products, e.g., as brand-name clothing and agricultural products such as new varieties of grains and plants have value-added to them due to research, design and innovation. Creators of such products, whether they are companies, individuals or nations, ought to have the right to stop others from using their 'brainchild' and to have the right to negotiate a mutually acceptable compensation if others desire to use their inventions. Such rights have come to be known as "intellectual property rights." It is generally acknowledged that the protection of "intellectual rights" is an incentive for innovation that benefits the society as a whole."
A critical review of the article "Trade and Labour Standards--Theory, New Empirical Evidence and Policy Implications" by Vivek Dehejia and Yiagadeesen Samy.
Abstract The paper examines the article "Trade and Labour Standards--Theory, New Empirical Evidence, and Policy Implications" where the authors discuss labour standards in high standard and low standard countries, potential links between these labour standards and each market's comparative trade advantages and the relationship between labour standards in general and export markets. The paper shows how the authors are adept at proper research methodologies but maintains that they need to refine their topic and make the subject of the research somewhat more useful for the intended audience.
From the Paper "Labour standards are an important issue within the context of trade negotiations and the policy formulation which accompanies them. The authors do an excellent job of making the relationship between these two concerns readily apparent to even the average reader that may not be intimately familiar with trade related information. The primary concern regarding labour standards in trade negotiations is how they impact a particular market's ability to leverage comparative trade advantages or in how to construct an equitable tariff structure: "Labour interests in high-standards countries argue that low labour standards are an unfair source of comparative advantage, and that increasing imports from low-standards countries will have an adverse impact on wages and working conditions"(Dehejia & Samy 3)."
Tags: export, market, tariffs, trade, negotiations, research, model
An examination of how the World Trade Organization agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) has changed the way medicines are handled in the international community.
Abstract This paper discusses the World Trade Organization agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, which is also known as TRIPs. The paper first discusses the history of the agreement and the aspects that the laws encompass. The paper then focuses on how the TRIPs agreement has changed the way medicines are handled in the international community.
From the Paper "The TRIPs agreement has changed the way medicines are handled in the international community and has also changed the way intellectual property rights are handled. The compulsory licensing provision has made it possible for people in less fortunate countries to produce their own anti-AIDS drugs, since they are so expensive to get from other countries. This was done in an attempt to neutralize the monopoly that developed countries have on this industry, but it has thus far not been successful. WTO member nations are constantly looking to outdo one another economically, which leads to many disputes between member nations. With this agreement, countries can produce patented material without permission if the circumstances are right. While this is a step in the right direction, many member countries still cannot afford to produce the vast amounts of medicine that is needed to end these health epidemics. Likewise, parallel importing has created a system where countries can shop around for the best prices on certain products and are not forced to purchase these products directly from the manufacturer. The international community should support one another in order to ensure that proper healthcare is available to all countries who have signed in to the WTO because only this will ensure the long term survival of the pact."
Abstract The notion of 'comparative advantage' states that countries prosper first by taking advantage of their assets in order to concentrate on what they can produce best and then by trading these products for products that other countries produce best. In order for this liberal trade policy to succeed, international trade in general must be itself liberalized. This paper assesses how the GeneralAgreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its successor the World Trade Organization, have fared in this task, with particular reference to the developing world.
From the Paper "The mercantilist idea of protectionism ultimately leads to bloated, inefficient producers supplying consumers with outdated, unattractive products. However, liberalising trade tends to lead to sharpening competition, motivating innovation and breeding success. One such policy is the transparency of governments' trade policies, as sometimes promising not to raise trade barriers is just as important as lowering them. This is because the promise allows businesses a much more transparent view of their future opportunities and hence liberalise trade."
Abstract This paper examines the world of international business by analyzing individual companies, nations, and other tradeagreements including European Economic Community (EEC), North American Free TradeAgreement (NAFTA) and GeneralAgreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The author studies the implications and challenges of becoming an international company and at the same time, discusses the requirements a company must meet in order to survive international competition.
From the Paper "As this month's events have once again demonstrated, we are all linked together in a single world, one in which the idea of the modern nation-state itself is becoming increasingly less meaningful. Even as political alliances bind the world together, we also find ourselves powerfully reminded of the way in which the world is a single entity in terms of its economic systems as stock markets rocked throughout the world and talk was of how a recession in the United States would have international implications, even as U.S. markets themselves had been weakened in the past several years due to weakness. This economic interdependence is in part due to the importance of international trade. But it is also in large measure do to the ever-increasing importance of companies that do business internationally. This paper examines the current situation of international business, presenting a survey of the range of such businesses and outlining both the external contexts in which such companies conduct their business as well as the internal organization that is needed for a company to be able to function efficiently in an international context."
Abstract This paper explains that tariffs, which are taxes on imports of commodities into a country or area, (1) supply income for the government and (2) are extensively used to defend domestic manufacturer's profits from overseas opposition; however, this defense comes at an economic cost to domestic consumers who pay higher prices for import competing goods and to the financial system as a whole. The author points out that, since 1948, when average tariffs on manufactured goods reached 30 percent in most developed economies, these economies sought to reduce tariffs on manufactured goods through numerous rounds of discussions under the GeneralAgreement on TariffsTrade (GATT). The paper relates that many non-tariff barriers, such as administrative refinement (arbitrary tariff classification), quantitative limitations (quotas and embargoes) and customs management (uplifting invoice value) are especially damaging to exports from developing countries especially the least developed countries.
From the Paper "Economists and trade experts have been trying to certificate the occurrence of NTBs and are also struggling with the trickier task of shaping the particular financial consequence of a number of national or restricted requirements and regulations on limiting imports. Non-tariff barriers may comprise anti-dumping measures, new technological standards applied to imports, innovative security regulations, altered hygienic necessities, or more challenging procedures for import licensing and customs clearance. Experts say it can be tricky to differentiate among legitimate measures taken by industrialized countries to protect public health and promote consumer safety and regulations that abuse free-trade principles and unjustly limit imports."
Abstract This paper defines intellectual regimes as principles that guide behavior in a particular area through norms, rules, and procedures. Regimes involving trade include the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the GeneralAgreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). This paper looks at these two entities and how their existence and policies dictate and influence international trade.
From the Paper "The world is now that of global markets, international trade, and fuzzy borders. Intellectual property, once easy to enforce because it remained within borders, now is much more difficult, especially with the introduction of the Internet. "The reduction of trade barriers and improvements in the transparency of trade policies must now reach beyond border trade measures to national product regulations and standards, because it is these differences that distort competition in world markets" (Ryan 197). When countries have unequal variations in their levels of property protection, the intellectual property market becomes tangled and very expensive. We cannot, however, demand minimum standards across the board on every type of intellectual property, nor can we demand them of all nations for there is nothing more sovereign than the state; there would be no one to enforce such requirements. Governmental organizations now exist to try to alleviate these problems through diplomacy and multilateral agreements. Enforceability is still a problem since each nation's "variations in level of wealth, economic structure, technological capacity, governmental form, and cultural tradition" all affect the interests and goals of the state (191). Now more than ever in this global community, there is a demand for an international regime in intellectual property, caused by the variations in protection."
Abstract The paper explains how because of the dynamic nature of international business, the world trade markets consist of countries that virtually have no borders. The paper shows that protectionist measures are sometimes appropriate for a nation to protect their own interests in the realm of international trade. The paper shows evidence of the benefits of the North American Free TradeAgreement (NAFTA) for Canada. The paper explores the advantages and disadvantages of tradeagreements in general and for Canada in particular. The paper concludes that now more than ever, nations need to work together to achieve their individual and group goals for the good of the nations, their people and our planet.
Outline:
Thesis
Antithesis
Personal Views
Antithesis
Thesis or Antithesis?
Re-Presentation of Thesis
Re-Presentation of Antithesis
Final Thoughts
From the Paper "Despite being the largest trade partner to its mega-neighbor to the south, the United States (McLaughlin), Canada has gotten the short end of many of the larger trade agreements that have emerged in recent years. In contrast, however, the North American Free Trade Agreement, NAFTA, has lived up to its promises to Canada that were made when the agreement was first authored in the 1990s (Howell). In an effort to gain some rights and benefits in the international trade agreements that have come to fruition over the past several decades, Canada, among other nations, has taken protectionist steps to preserve their own best interests, lest they be pressured by unfair trade reform."
Abstract This paper posits that free trade is not a benefit to the world economy and shows examples why this is the case. The paper looks at GATT and NAFTA in order to explain why free trade is not as advantageous as it sounds.
From the Paper "If NAFTA is North America-oriented, GATT is still active. Right now, a major goal is tariff reduction. Despite national impediments and restrictive trade practices world-wide "tariffs will be reduced as much as 36% over the next decade. As with NAFTA, tariff reduction will open up domestic markets to foreign competition. Lower tariffs will also make it possible for manufacturers in industrialized nations to set up shop in countries where labor costs less." No wonder IBM and AT&T, ITT, Coca Cola, Ford and GM (among dozens of others) are anxious to "set up shop" in China and other Southeast Asian countries (until the current financial crisis may be giving some of them second thoughts)."
Abstract Implemented on January 1, 1994, NAFTA, which stands for North American Free TradeAgreement, established free trade between the North American countries of United States, Canada and Mexico. This paper examines how there are many advantages such as the elimination of tariffs and how it has brought economic growth and raised the standard of living. It also looks at some of the disadvantages to the agreement such as deficits to the United States and a fear over loss of jobs to foreign workers.
From the Paper "There was some strong opposition to NAFTA coming from individuals and organizations. The strongest opposition came from labor unions. Labor unions in Canada and the U.S. feared that jobs would move out of the country due to lower labor costs in Mexico. Some people felt that it undermined small American companies and millions of American Jobs would go the underpaid workers in third world countries. Workers in the manufacturing industries felt threatened about their place in the industry. The big question was whether it would be more beneficial to the United States to let the low-wage jobs go to Mexico workers, and put more resources into building up the high-tech and service industries. "
Abstract This paper discusses both the visible and invisible barriers that exist to free trade. It suggests that the international mood is in favor, not simply of quota and tariff reductions, but also the elimination of less obvious barriers to free trade. The paper describes these barriers and their potential benefits and then discusses the implications of removing all barriers to trade.
From the Paper "Of course, consumers knowing the country of origin of Toyota vehicles have done little to harm the dominance of that car over traditional American manufacturers like GM and Ford. But in some instances, if a particular nation has received bad press regarding its labor practices, mandatory labeling as an imported good might act as an additional invisible trade barrier. Also, if a nation is being subject to a particularly damaging round of international publicity regarding other aspects of its international policy, this may lead to a boycott of the nation's goods, and thus invisible tariffs can be constructed through simply the apparently innocuous policy of labeling nation's country of origin, in the supposed interest of consumer information."
