Abstract
This paper, using Pennsylvania as a model, demonstrates the differences between state budgeting policies and federal budgeting policies. It shows how the budgeting techniques in the federal government have some major differences, when compared to those in the Pennsylvania State government; these differences include a lack of a separate capital budget, different budget cycles and timelines, and budgetary policy differences.

From the Paper
"The federal government uses only one budget to lay out its financial obligations, whereas Pennsylvania uses two separate budgets. The single operating budget used by the federal government is required to outline federal expenditures from purchases to service contracts. Pennsylvania, however, has one budget that outlines services, entitlements and education expenses, and a different budget to make new purchases on capital improvements. The former is called the General Fund, and the latter is the Capital budget. Pennsylvania uses two budgets because the General Fund is used for purchases and contracts that will take place within that fiscal year, and the Capital budget is used to forecast capital purchases in the next five years. In this manner, Pennsylvania can keep better track of its assets and have a tighter grip on where its money is spent. The biggest advantage to having a separate budget for capital improvements is it allows the possibility of change. When funding is appropriated on the federal level, the department gets its money all at once and builds whatever it needs. For a state, though, a program may be feasible at the time of its announcement, but may have to be restricted due to extenuating circumstances (i.e. September 11th and the economic downfall.) "

Tags:budgetary, budgeting, fiscal, pennsylvania

Abstract
This paper discusses the federal budget deficit and various strategies that can be formulated to address it. Particularly important are several budgetary techniques employed at the state level, specifically Georgia, that are effective at controlling spending without increasing taxation. Private research institutes, such as the Cato Institute, often propose more radical solutions but these are indicative of the importance of controlling the deficit.

From the Paper
"Most analysts readily admit that the federal budget deficit is bordering on the unmanageable. Between geopolitical events such as the Iraq War, numerous petrochemical industry developments, and natural disasters such as Hurricane Katrina, increasing deficits at the federal level have been the modus operandi of the current administration: "The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office (CBO) announced on August 26th that the fiscal year 2004 federal budget deficit will be an estimated $480 billion, and that deficits could total $5 trillion over the next 10 years" (Budget par.1). While certainly state budgets are not of the same magnitude as the federal government's budget, they are similarly devised and the federal government would be well-advised to appropriate some of the fiscal controls that many states have adopted. Georgia, for example, utilizes a revenue shortfall reserve program that is mandated by law (Georgia). Essentially, this fund is created..."

Tags:deficit, taxation, state

Abstract
The paper discusses how a change in state spending and income has alarmed tax-payers and businessmen alike. The paper relates that the Iraq war and public services sector seem to have dominated New Hampshire's budget for the past few years. The paper notes that state government programs have decreased, which include highways and state employees, while federal funds are decreasing or have essentially become non-existent. The paper includes the category totals for the 2006 - 2007 biennial state operating budget.

From the Paper
"During the General Court's annual sessions and throughout the year, the Office of Legislative Budget Assistant (LBA) Budget Division provides technical staff assistance in the areas of finance, accounting, and budgeting to members of the Legislature and its committees. It also assists in preparing the operating and capital budgets. The LBA staff provides aid and information to special study committees and commissions. It also reviews all programs or activities of state government which are required by statute to determine discretionary and non-discretionary State spending (State p 2)."

Tags:deficit, surplus, taxation, federal, funds

Abstract
The discussion provides a description of each state's three branches of government, provisions ensuring separation of powers, and systems of checks and balances on power. The constitutions of each state are also examined to show provisions for relations between state and local and county government.

From the Paper
"Both the New York State and Texas State Governments are comprised of the same three branches of government as the U.S. federal government; the executive, legislative and judicial branches. Despite this similarity, both New York's and Texas' government branches are made up of different components. The following table illustrates the components of each of the three branches of government for the states of New York Branches and Texas Branches."

Tags:politics, rights, articles, federalism, education, budgets, governors, judicial, executive, legislative

Abstract
This paper examines the reasons why the Federal Reserve Open Market Committee at its October 2000 meeting decided to leave the Federal Funds Rate target (and by extension the money supply target) unchanged as well as looking at what might have prompted the Fed Open Market Committee to increase the Federal Funds Rate or Discount Rate as well as what might have prompted them to decrease the Federal Funds Rate or Discount Rate ? and what other actions might have accompanied either an increase or decrease.

From the paper:

"To understand the Fed?s decision in October it is necessary to understand how the office functions in general. As the central banking authority of the United States, the Federal Reserve acts as a fiscal agent for the U.S. government; it also serves as custodian of the reserve accounts of commercial banks, makes loans to commercial banks, and is authorized to issue Federal Reserve notes that constitute the entire supply of paper currency of the country. The system comprises the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, the 12 Federal Reserve banks, the Federal Open Market Committee, the Federal Advisory Council, and, a Consumer Advisory Council along with several thousand member banks. The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System determines the reserve requirements of the member banks within statutory limits, reviews and determines the discount rates established by the 12 Federal Reserve banks, and reviews the budgets of the reserve banks."

Tags:banking, authority, fiscal, legal, rates, commercial, loans, reserves, security, inflation, market, indicators, hitech, recession

Abstract
The paper discusses how colleges and universities get financial support from a variety of places, including state government, local government, student tuition, federal funding through grants and loans, endowments and private donations. The paper relates that the core support of post secondary education has always fallen on local and state government, and, local and state governments also heavily support financial aid to students. The paper notes that the type of institution determines the amount of funding received; in 2000, local and state governments funded 31% of post secondary institution budgets and sixty-four percent of public community colleges were funded the same way (Wellman, n.d.).

From the Paper
"The mission statement for the U.S. Department of Education is modeled by Florida and New York as well as other states in the nation. It has these objectives: * "Strengthen the Federal commitment to assuring access to equal educational opportunity for every individual; * Supplement and complement the efforts of states, the local school systems and other instrumentalities of the states, the private sector,..."

Tags:higher, education, funding

Abstract
The paper explores how cutting taxes may ultimately be an important strategy in reducing the federal debt of the United States. The federal debt has been a long standing concern of American citizens, politicians and economists. Today, the federal government faces a projected gross federal debt of $6,118,364 million in 2005. The paper shows how governments have traditionally taken the stance of increasing taxes or cutting spending in order to reduce the deficit. These attempts have largely failed due to unanticipated budget concerns. It explores how, in traditional attempts to reduce the debt, cutting taxes was thought to be a way to decrease national revenues, thus potentially increasing the debt. However, many economists are now considering that cutting taxes may help to stimulate the economy, paradoxically resulting in increased taxation revenue through higher employment and better wages. The paper examines how tax cuts may prove to be a way to increase revenues, thus potentially providing a means to reduce the federal debt. It also examines President Bush's Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (EGTRRA, designed to cut taxes, reduce the debt, and stimulate the national economy.

From the Paper
"Critics however, argue that EGTRRA will ultimately fail. They note that misrepresentations in federal budgeting overestimate budget surpluses, including mistakes in long term costs of retirement programs from a budgeted $5.6 trillion to a mere 1.6 trillion. Further, they note that EGTRRA will reduce revenues through tax cuts. Ultimately, the critics argue that the combination of a decreased budget surplus and tax cuts will sink the EGTRRA (Gale and Potter).
If the critics are correct, and the EGTRRA fails, the government will be forced to increase taxes, reduce spending, or increase the public debt. As such, plans to reduce taxes may once again result in increased federal debt."

Tags:deficit, GDP, GRH, EGTRRA, Economic, Growth, and, Tax, Relief, Reconciliation, Act, of, 2001

Abstract
This paper compares and contrasts the executive branch of government at the federal and state level -- i.e. the presidency and the governorship. The paper studies how both use the budget as a tool. The paper investigates the principles set forth in the U.S. Constitution regarding the Executive branch, specifically the powers of the U.S. President, such as the role of Commander in Chief. The paper also looks at the broad scope of activity of governors at the state level.

Tags:governor, president, executive branch, states, federal government

Abstract
This paper examines the healthcare budgeting process within Blue Cross/Blue Shield, particularly as it relates to Medicare and Medicaid funding and payment processes. According to the paper, this is an important aspect of Blue Cross/Blue Shield's budgeting processes and procedures because so much of its revenues are derived from Medicare and Medicaid funding through federal and state funded programs.

From the Paper
"This document discusses the healthcare budgeting process within Blue Cross/Blue Shield and particularly how it relates to Medicare and Medicaid funding and payment processes. This is an important aspect of Blue Cross/Blue Shield's budgeting processes and procedures because so much of its revenues are derived from Medicare and Medicaid funding through federal and state funded programs. Healthcare Budgeting: Blue Cross/Blue Shield Outline I. A series of top-down/bottom up processes..."

Tags:insurance, healthcare, budgeting

Abstract
This paper explains that health care budgeting is one of the most difficult tasks that companies face because it must be modified regularly to reflect frequent and complex changes in government policies and Medicare and Medicaid rate changes. The author points out that the most dramatic affect that Medicare and Medicaid has on health care facilities is the ever changing reimbursement rates, which fluctuate every quarter and are not known to the company in advance so trying to budget for an intangible balance can be an uphill battle. The paper concludes that, until the federal and state governments are able to properly and effectively balance their own financial budgets, all health care companies must regularly take steps to be as prepared as possible for the changes that affect their company budgets.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Budgeting Process
Government Laws
Affects On Budgeting
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The budget for the health care industry can be greatly affected by government laws that can change frequently. These changes can have a negative as well as a positive affect on health care. The government is focused on balancing the budget, as well as, keeping the social and financial interests of the people in mind. As the Social Security, Medicare and Medicaid programs start to lose money the government must concern itself with how to keep the programs running. Lowering payments for health care is one option the government uses to stop the loss of money to fund the program. This action can affect the health care company's budget by giving the organization less money to work with then they originally budgeted. Another way to increase the programs is to increase taxes the company has to pay in order to raise the needed funds to keep the programs afloat. This can also increase the budget for organization and force companies to use previously allocated funds into the tax budget."

Tags:intangible, prepared, reimbursement, medicare, medicaid