Abstract This paper examines the nature of the Federal Reserve System, the push towards centralized banking in the United States, the panic of 1907, the evolution of the Federal Reserve during the 20th century, and the future of the institution.The paper highlights the significant role that the Federal Reserve System has played in the history of the United States since its creation. The paper explains that the Federal Reserve System was the final and most successful attempt by the United States government to create a centralized banking system for the nation that could help stabilize the economy and centrally coordinate financial policy-making. The paper then points out that, though significant criticism has been leveled at the Federal Reserve, throughout its history, there are few indications that the Federal Reserve will be abolished in the near future. In conclusion, the paper shows that for the foreseeable future, the Federal Reserve System will be an undeniable feature of American political and economic life.
Outline:
Introduction
What Is the Federal Reserve System?
Early History of Banking the United States, 1791-1913
The Panic of 1907 and the Birth of the Federal Reserve
From 1913 to the Present: The Evolution of the Fed
Criticism and the Future of the Fed
Conclusion
From the Paper "The Federal Reserve System was first established in the wake of the Panic of 1907. Earlier attempts to create such a system of federal banks had failed, but the Panic provided the impetus by apparently highlighting the need for a system like the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve Act (1913) called for a system of eight to twelve mostly autonomous regional reserve banks. These banks would be owned by commercial banking interests, but coordinated by a committee appointed by the President of the United States (Flaherty sec. 13). In this way, the Federal Reserve System was originally devised as a private banking system that could operate largely in the public interest."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the United States Constitution and the concept of Federalism. It examines the pros and cons of providing power to the State and a brief history of this concept and how it has been instituted.
From the paper:
"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people,? the 10th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution promises us, and in these words ? as elsewhere throughout the United States ? we see the outlines of the system of governance that is called federalism. Federalism is simply a type of political structure or organization that unites separate states under the governance of a single political system to ensure both that the individual states are allowed to maintain much of their autonomy while also allowing them to share in the greater power of a larger country."
Abstract The paper analyzes the book, which looks at the U.S. government's involvement in the tobacco industry. It discusses shifts in policy making with regard to tobacco and the influence and power of the tobacco industry to fight anti-smoking policies. The effect of federalism on product regulation is discussed, as is the release of the report by the Surgeon General, Luther Terry, in 1964; claiming smoking as a health risk. The Federal Trade Commission's role in regulating cigarettes is looked at and the interference of politics in neutral, scientific, and impartial regulation is raised. The paper concludes with recommendations for the future, such as the rationalization of public policy and the monitoring of policy changes.
From the Paper "The tobacco issue has been a difficult one in the American political system from the beginning of tobacco as a cash crop. The issue has become even more complex in recent years, with one arm of the government offering subsidies and other support to tobacco growers while another is challenging the health risks involved and still another is seeking legal redress. The government has for some time in effect been on both sides of the issue at the same time. Many of the reasons for this can be found in the book Smoking and Politics: Policy Making and the Federal Bureaucracy by A. Lee Fritschler and James M. Hoefler, most recently in its 5th Edition as the authors update their analysis every few years."
Abstract This paper examines how politics, inevitably, becomes intertwined with policing, and how problems have resulted in a negative impact, including issues related to crime, racial conflict, and elections. It discusses how, sometimes, the desires, needs, and wants of federal agencies, generally responsible for overseeing policing activities, vary greatly from the needs of community members and civilians in local communities and how, in this situation, conflict often arises as a result of "too much" political interference in policing and community affairs. It attempts to show how harmony can be established between politics and policing.
From the Paper "Politics generally becomes involved in the field of policing as a measure or system of checks and balances, guaranteeing in part that police agencies "stay in line with the principles of a democratic society" (De Vries & Van Der Hooft-Van, 2003). Generally a majority of policing organizations are governmental in nature, thus subject to the same criteria and principles that might be associate any other federal agency. Politics dictates that the decisions and actions of any agency should be in compliance with the principles of democracy, or in plain terms the needs of the people (De Vries & Van Der Hooft-Van, 2003). Decisions and actions that take place within a police agency should also be aligned with politically correct concepts such following the legal framework dictated by a democratic state (De Vries & Van Der-Hooft-Van, 2003)."
This paper on the Canadian political economy states that Canada is seen as a thriving post-modern economy but, at the same time, sufferers from problems of political identity disintegration and economic regionalization.
Abstract This paper states that Canadians are overwhelmed with uncertainties about the capacity of their political system to achieve their economic goals. The author believes that the federal state is moving towards neoliberal control, which downgraded economic tasks to lower levels of governance and raised power to the global and continental tiers. The paper describes the many changes that have taken place in the role and organization of the Canadian government to achieve this neoliberal economic policy.
From the Paper "Since the Canadian government settles trade treaties but can execute them only in areas of its own constitutional jurisdiction, provincial participation has been necessary to realize what are understood to be the profit of liberalized trade. For this reason, Ottawa has encouraged improved provincial participation since the 1970s. In contradiction, an increased provincial function in trade policy has resulted in diminished provincial capability for industrial policy."
Abstract This paper explores the history of federalism in the United States with regard to the individual rights of its citizens. The writer reviews the purpose of the Constitution of the United States of America which at the time of its writing was difficult for many citizens to accept. The paper then looks at the objective of the Bill of Rights as a response to this fear. In this, a groundwork is established for a debate between the advocates of federalism versus those in favor of strong national supremacy.
From the Paper "Federalism, though accepting that a federal government must exist, is an ideology that seeks to reign in that central power by fragmenting it, vesting smaller governing bodies (the state legislatures) with control over the people. It is an approach which favors limited government and grass roots participation. Proponents of national supremacy argue for the opposite: a strong central government whose power supersedes that of the states."
Abstract The writer of this paper supplies a brief yet concise look at Russia's population which currently boasts more than 160 different ethnic groups that call the Russian Federation home. This paper details the makeup of the Russian Federation, which is comprised of 89 constituencies and 21 republics, that enjoy a high degree of autonomy that correspond to some of Russia's ethnic minorities. This paper examines the events that led to the fall of the U.S.S.R. and the collapse of the communist government in 1991. This paper delves into the various leaders of Russia including Joseph Stalin, Vladimir Lenin, Boris Yeltsin who banned the Communist party and Vladimir Putin. This paper discusses the circumstances surrounding the Russian Civil War which claimed 9 million lives. This paper also contains pertinent facts and statistics relating to this particular topic.
From the Paper "After Stalin's death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and Georgi Malenkov as Premier of the Soviet Union. Under this new leadership, an amnesty was declared for some who were serving prison sentences for criminal offices, price cuts were announced, and a relaxation of restrictions on private plots, ending the role of large-scale forced labor in the economy. From 1958 to 1964, Khrushchev was also the Premier of the Soviet Union. The ten years following Stalin's death saw the reassertion of political power over the means of coercion, thus the party became the dominant institution over the secret police and army."
Tags: russia, history, u.s.s.r, communism, political, putin, lenin, stalin
Abstract This paper makes a case for why political parties have become an essential part of political campaigns, primarily because of their enormous fund-raising capabilities. The writer demonstrates that parties as they are today are essential, because of their ability to run smooth and large-scale campaigns.
From the Paper "Paul Herrnson said it best in his contention that, "American parties are primarily electoral institutions. They focus more on elections and less on initiating policy change than do parties in other Western democracies" (Maisel 47). While the influence of political parties has fluctuated greatly throughout their 150-year influence, one critical advantage of parties has seemingly guaranteed their undeniable essentialness in campaigns; their ability to raise vast sums of money. With vast sums of money came the ability to provide essential resources to candidates, and the "increased needs of candidates for greater access to technical expertise, political information and money created an opportunity for national...party organizations to become the repositories of these electoral resources" (Maisel 52). Party-run campaigns have supplanted candidate-centered campaigns, and this is a trend not likely to change as the years progress. Even with the inception of campaign finance reforms such as the Federal Election Campaigning Act of 1971 and the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, parties have continually adapted to changing legal limits on various forms of campaign finance, and monies raised continues to increase. Parties have used these increased funds to do whatever it takes to win elections, such as hiring campaign consultants who seek to ensure that the party gets enough votes when Election Day comes. As demonstrated in Thomas Frank's What's the Matter with Kansas?, the unlikely transformation of Kansas from one of the most liberal states to a now overwhelming majority Republican state is a feat in itself, and happened because of shrewd campaign tactics."
Abstract An examination of how political parties emerged after the Constitution was drafted in the late Eighteenth Century. The author looks at the Federalist and Republican parties, investigating how having political parties has been beneficial. The well-known argument, the "Whiskey Rebellion" between these two parties in 1794 is discussed.
From the Paper "The Federalist Party was one of the first two parties to arise after the Constitution. The Federalist faction was founded primarily by the Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton and by Vice President, John Adams. (Burke) The Federalists desired for the government to have a very active role, along with a National Treasury that would play a strong role in the national economy. The Federalists were also pro-Britain regarding foreign policy, which was a popular viewpoint with most citizens in the New England area. The Federalists also had strong support from the businessmen of America, like the manufacturers, and merchants."
Tags: whiskey, rebellion, federal, republican, president, america
Abstract Federal contracts for construction, while similar in many respects to other types of federal contracts, have some unique aspects that have caused the federal government to create a system of rules within the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) specific to construction contracts. The federal government has been justified in creating these rules separate from those that apply specifically to supply and service contracts. This paper focuses on some of the unique rules and regulations that apply to federal construction contracts, including those related to contract types, labor laws, specifications, payments, delays, and differing site conditions.
Abstract
Overview
Contract Types
Federal Construction Contracting Laws
Contract Performance and Specifications
Payment Financing
Delays
Differing Site Conditions
References
From the Paper "The federal government is the largest owner of real property in the world (Bastianelli, et. al., 1998), so it stands to reason that they spend an enormous amount of money on construction and maintenance of that property. It is difficult to gauge exactly how much the federal government spends on construction annually, but it is noteworthy that the Department of Defense alone planned to award over $10 billion on construction contracts in 2002 (Bush, 2001). Because of this significant amount of construction outsourcing, and the intricacies that go along with construction contracting, the federal government has been justified in developing unique regulations and rules for construction contracts. The federal government, in the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR), defines construction as, ?"construction, alteration, or repair (including dredging, excavating, and painting) of buildings, structures, or other real property"? (FAR 2.101). Determining whether or not something is considered a building or a structure is general straightforward, although there are always exceptions. However, the line defining whether or not something is real property can, at times, be somewhat unclear. The FAR does not provide a definition for real property, but in federal contracts the common legal definition is used, that real property is, ?"land and all things that are attached to it"? (Lectric Law Library, 2003). Though many of the clauses, terms and conditions, and rules applicable to federal construction contracts are the same, or similar, to those that are used on federal contracts for supplies, there are a number of differences in the nature of contracting for construction that have caused the federal government to create separate laws that deal specifically with federal construction contracts. One of the major differences is that construction contracts are performed on Government property. Because of this, construction contractors are subject to a great deal more in the area of inspections and general surveillance on their contracts (Abernathy and Kelleher, 1976). Construction contracts typically have much more paperwork than federal supply contracts. On construction contracts, a contractor is required to file daily reports showing that they complied with all the unique construction regulations, including safety, schedules, and submittals of material samples (Arnavas, 2001, ?? 27.4.a.). Construction contracts are subject to much greater scrutiny on performance than supply contracts, as detailed analysis and explanation of any deficiencies are reported to contractors and contractors have the right to respond. Past performance information is also kept on construction contracts for six years, where the norm on supply contracts is three years (Arnavas, 2001, ?? 27.4.a). Other differences that will be the focus of this paper include contract types, labor laws, specifications, payments, delays, and differing site conditions."
Abstract This paper provides a thorough summary of this chapter. It shows how the author, Peter Edelman, examines what he believes are the major economic and societal shifts that significantly changed America's view of youth. Through a linear examination of time periods over the last century Edelman focuses on the various forces that shaped our views of adolescence and policies addressing youth and policy today. The paper explains how, by examining changing cultural, political and racial attitudes toward adolescence, Edelman continually connects them to economic forces instrumental in shaping these attitudes. In the end of his examination he laments that there is an inconsistency between states and state agencies and that policy is fragmented along class and racial lines, a bifurcation of policy.
From the Paper "Edelman begins his linear examination of the time periods and period forces that shaped today's policies in the section titled, ?Youth in the Early Twentieth Century.? During the first third of the century initial attempts at protecting and prolonging childhood were undertaken. He states, ?The child savers of the time invented a series of institutions and policies that focused more public policy attention on children and responded to economic changes that reduced the demand for work by children.?2 He notes that before the 1900s the terms "youth" and "adolescence" were not in common usage and that young people commonly assumed adult responsibilities at younger ages.3 Per Edelman, the notion that childhood had come to include a period of ?Strum and Drang,? in which the young struggled to define their own personal identities, was first purposed in a study by G. Stanley Hall and led to public discussions on the role of children and childhood in society. Edelman points out that most jobs of the period did not require a high school education and most people entered the work force while still in their adolescence.4 As America moved through the early 1900s economic opportunities, a reoccurring theme by Edelman, along with demographic changes, provided increasing opportunities for America's young to spend more and more time in the outside world. As a result socialization was sought less from the family and more from the outside world. While young men were the primary beneficiaries of these changes, larger numbers young women began working outside of the home during this time period as well. Edelman states that public social behavior, typical adolescent behavior today, was considered to be on the brink of prostitution. Public concern resulted in many states raising the legal limit of consent.5 Responding to a surge in unattached youth in the cities, children of immigrants and a general perception that increased moral guidance was needed local communities started assuming greater responsibilities in socializing the young. Organizations like the Boy Scouts, YMCA, Campfire Girls, etc. helped meet these needs. The idea of "youth" became much more meaningful, Edelman states during the early 20th century.6 While public policy did exist that concerned the adolescence years at the turn of the century they addressed mostly issues of child labor, compulsory education and the juvenile court itself. But these issues were overshadowed by a growing concern of the way young children were being dealt with through orphanages or other residential institutions.7 Policy shifted during this time to address the idea that young children were better off staying with their mothers then being shunted off to the various child institutions. Early attempts by the federal government to address public concerns about children resulted in the creation of the Children's Bureau. These early activities focused on infants, children and young teens but failed to address the needs of older youth."
An overview of federal aid given in the form of a supplement to local schools based on their conformity to established guidelines under the No Child Left Behind Act.
Abstract This paper addresses several issues relating to the No Child Left Behind legislation. It compares and contrasts the advantages and disadvantages of federal aid, discusses what legal opportunities or consequences accompany receiving federal aid, examines and evaluates the meaning and implications of supplanting and examines how someone could prepare for changes in the different areas on the revenue and expenditures of a school district based on in demographic and economic factors.
Tags:Federal aid, local schools, federal regulation, No child left behind, federal funding, NEA, union opposition
Abstract This paper discusses and describes how the federal and state systems of government may or may not differ in their application of employment laws. The paper includes specific examples of employment protections provided by the Florida state system, but not by the federal system.
From the Paper "Employment law is that branch of the law that deals with employer-employee relations, work hours workplace conditions and related matters. Most elements of employment law fall under civil law ..."
Abstract This paper considers the role of the Federal Reserve in the U.S. economy. The paper discusses Chairman Alan Greenspan, his predecessor and successor, the mechanics of how the Federal Reserve conducts monetary policy,the Federal Reserve's fiscal policy and the direction of recent policy.
From the Paper "Although many news programs discuss the Fed and its chairman, Alan Greenspan, and while many people know that the Fed somehow affects interest rates and that interest rates affect the economy, few understand the relationship between the Fed and the American economy. This research considers some of the key points surrounding the Federal Reserve, its effects on the American economy and the role of the chairman. The Fed conducts monetary policy by setting the rates that member banks charge each other..."
Tags: central bank, federal reserve, monetary policy, fiscal policy, Alan Greenspan
Abstract In this article the writer examines contemporary federalism with regards to education in America. The writer specifically discusses the 'No Child Left Behind Act' of 2001. The writer describes the historic federalist system and the New Federalism in this paper. The writer also examines the power of federal authority over education.
From the Paper "'Power: Who has it and who wants it more?' are two themes that resonate throughout the halls of government every day. Federalism, the division of powers between a central government and regional governments often causes struggles over the relative powers of each level of government. In the United States, where government is divided into federal state and local entities, each level exercises separate powers within their own spheres of authority. By establishing such a system the Framers sought to create ... "
