Abstract This essay discusses how fascism was predominantly a racist movement that was adopted by Hitler in his "Final Solution". Racist thinkers such as J.G. Herder and Arthur De Gobineau contributed to the formulation and dissemination of racist categories of thinking that paved the foundation to fascism. Fascism was also the expression of a people who felt humiliated and powerless and needed a scapegoat to take out their rage and frustration.
Abstract This paper looks at the representation of fascism within the film medium of "1900". The paper looks at how films re-vision historical events and themes through close analysis of the portrayal of fascism in the film. The paper looks at Bertolucci himself, his views and beliefs and whether or not he challenges or advocates historical myths and assumptions.
From the Paper "Bertolucci was born in Parma, Italy in 1940. His father encouraged his love of film, being amongst many things a film critic, and history professor , while his mother, whom Bertolucci described as "the most mysterious person in my life" , played a rather remote role within the family. Bertolucci has created a number of films, many enjoying commercial and critical success. Bertolucci's films often make political comments, furthermore 1900, despite being funded by two major American film companies ironically displays communist sentiment. 1900 re/visions the class struggle between the peasants and the landowners within 75 years of Italian history. This is captured within a four and a half hour long 'epic', exploring the relationship between two boys born on the same day from different class structures and foregrounding the rise of fascism and socialist resistance in Italy. Arguably film is the chief carrier of historical messages , being more accessible than novels or history books. However, film is perhaps the most problematic means of historical representation. Hollywood films attempt to make profit, thus they strive to entertain, win awards, and to a much lesser extent educate. 1900 is not a Hollywood film, and despite having big name actors , the film by no means follows typical Hollywood conventions. Historical films 're/vision' history; they transcend the 'linear, analytic and scientific' , and often move beyond absolute realism. They provide a vision which is subject to the value systems and motives of the filmmaker and the period in which the film was made. Through close examination of 1900, Bertolucci's revisioning of the understanding of Fascism is clearly displayed."
Abstract This paper introduces, discusses and analyzes the book "Technology, War and Fascism" by Herbert Marcuse. According to the paper, Marcuse wrote these essays in the 1940s and 1950s, and they have been gathered together into a collection by his son. The paper reports that Marcuse was a liberal philosopher, famous in the 20th century for his liberal thought and understanding. The paper discusses how this book outlines Marcuse's philosophy on war, and the growing technology in the U.S. and the world at the time.
From the Paper "After discussing Germany in such detail, the book outlines three projects Marcuse worked on while he worked for the U.S. State Department. These projects all dealt with German subjects, mostly German civil affairs and the disillusion of the Nazi Party after the war. At the time they were written, these were all classified documents. Marcuse notes that he did all the writing for these projects, while he had aides that helped gather and interpret data. He also notes a variety of publications used in evaluating the data. This section shows how involved the U.S. was in restoring Germany to its former democratic state and how experts such as Marcuse (and many others) helped them formulate plans in this regard. This is a small section of the book, but it is an important glimpse into history, and creates more impact for the overall reading of the book. "
Abstract This paper looks at how Stanley Payne attempts to define fascism in his book "Fascism: Comparison and Definition". The paper explains that in order to address the challenge of fascism, we must understand what fascism is. The paper discusses how fascism went through a series of stages in Italy and Germany and how Hitler created what was arguably the purest fascist state, although it did not conform fully to the principles of fascism. The paper notes that Spain and Portugal represent two other case studies for Payne, but he finds in neither of them the true fascist regime. The writer points out that Payne covered a tremendous range of sources ,as the footnotes throughout the book show, but unfortunately Payne leaves a much more profound question unasked and unanswered: Do we need to re-examine the history and meaning of fascism to determine if it is becoming a prevalent force in parts of the world that Payne found no reason to discuss, and is the United States in danger of becoming fascist?
From the Paper "Payne reviews the antecedents of modern fascism and finds these in the "corporatist" movement, a movement which sought to combined social orders under an authoritarian government working closely with business cartels, in reaction to chaotic individualism.(23-24 ) It was also a reaction to the splintered state of many democratic movements (25-26), and a neomonarchist movement (27-29), and a support movement for imperialist policies. (29-31) All of these forces converged at a time of terrible cultural crisis as the First World War tore Europe and European sensibilities to pieces. In the psychological void that followed, many people found comfort in the simplicity of authoritarian answer."
Abstract Fascism is arguably the most influential and controversial political ideology in modern history and continues to be a fascinating topic for political study and discussion. The paper shows that ,despite fascism's worldwide existence and its responsibility for the development of numerous groups and political movements, Germany remains only one of two countries (the other being Italy) in which the ideology of fascism has enjoyed the success of political power. The paper shows that although there is very little consensus amongst political scientists and academics on many issues of fascism, there is a general agreement that the success of fascism in Germany was not due to any singular, or isolated, factor. Rather, it prospered as a result of Germany possessing the ideal combination of a strong national identity, a well-developed system of public persuasion and propaganda, and an existing government that was too weak and unstable to provide effective resistance against social and economic crisis. Therefore, although the accepted opinion is that German fascism was an evil and isolated abhorrence that was ended forever by the Allied victory in World War II, this paper proposes that its success was achieved through a set of political, social and economic conditions that could occur in any country, at any time.
From the Paper "Yet, despite achieving power on the basis of overwhelming popularity among the German public, it became immediately apparent that German fascism intended to control all aspects of national life, ensuring that their patriotic propaganda was able to permeate every area of German society with little resistance (Brady, 1969). Hitler's powerful personal charisma, aided by his meticulously organized public appearances and the saturation of everyday life with Nazi symbols, posters and indoctrination, established him as the infallible, heroworshiped savior of the German people (Payne, 1995). Despite the fact that his repressive totalitarian regime had abolished many of their basic liberties, and that every area of their lives was pervaded and controlled by state police organizations (Berwick, 23), many of the German people responded with uncritical loyalty to their leader and a frightening willingness to obey all state issued directives. The Nazification of German society was greatly assisted by the efforts of the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda under the control of Joseph Goebbels, which was highly effective at promoting the fascism regime as a welloiled Nazi machine (Eatwell, 111), by means of mass rallies, military parades, and sophisticated manipulation and censorship of the media. Such was the appeal of the fascist philosophy and propaganda that, in Germany in particular, the majority of people were willing to sacrifice their individual freedoms and ambitions for the greater good of their nation."
Abstract This paper deals with the original meaning of Fascism and fascism, the capitalization making a difference between these terms, and gives examples of the sorts of regimes that have accurately and inaccurately been referred to by these terms. The writer focuses on Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while also briefly looking at Fascism in Spain.
From the Paper "Before concluding this section on Fascism in Italy, one would do well to take a quick look at the leader of the pack. Benito Mussolini was the charismatic leader of this movement, and much of its success and its eventually failure lay on his shoulders. On the one hand, he was an architect, who had spent his entire life looking for an answer for society. He had formerly been a leader of a radical segment of the Italian Socialist Party, and ?After his turn to the right, Mussolini continued to employ much of the rhetoric of socialism, substituting the nation for social class as the basis of political loyalty.? (Wikipedia, Fascist) He presented a truly inspiring image of the state needing the love and devotion of its citizens, allowing individuals to feel as if they are not obeying orders out of coercion but out of true interest in the subject. On the other hand, Mussolini was weak in that he allowed the power of his position to escape him and he got caught up in wielding that power even when it was inappropriate (such as going into battles which could not be won, or for that matter exporting Jews who had previously been supportive allies)."
Abstract In this article, the writer points out that the start point in analyzing and understanding any social phenomena requires unambiguous definitions, empirical generalizations, general explanatory theories and a method of moral evolution. The writer maintains that regarding fascism, one cannot make a clear definition of what it means because there is no agreement between theories in any of these areas. The writer discusses that fascism can best be presented by the ideology of Mussolini's fascism in Italy. The writer concludes that this ideology, put into practice by Mussolini, is the most comprehensive and well-argued theory that pictures fascist beliefs, in comparison to any other theory, that was not as firmly formulated.
From the Paper "Analyzing the theories from this list, Gregor makes a critique of all theories, presenting their strong arguments, as well as their flaws. In his view, all of these theories, although they seem well organized, have a shortcoming that makes them unusable."
"Taking into account the categorization of fascist theories into six categories, one can identify that a comprehensive theory of fascism would embody elements from all six categories. The only theory that Gregor identifies as being a solid fascist ideology is the ideology of Italian fascism, which uses some parts of all ideologies. As stated before, Gregor believes that there are many flaws in the theories developed so far, but there are also many elements that can be linked to what he believes to be the best representation of fascist ideas - Italian fascism under Mussolini."
Abstract The paper examines fascism in its early stages, when Mussolini and Hitler were still providing something positive for the general population. The paper looks at the similarities between the fascist movements and shows how Italian and German fascism emerged from similar origins and were generated by the same causes. The paper then notes the difference that Mussolini's movement was primarily nationalist and patriotic, whereas Hitler's was based on racial grounds.
Outline:
Abstract
The Rise of Fascism in Italy (1920)
The Rise of Fascism in Germany (1930)
Similarities between Italy and Germany
Differences between Italy and Germany
Conclusions
From the Paper "The world we know now has changed along the years; has suffered mutations that left everlasting imprints. Captured by our daily activities, we seem to forget the tremendous efforts made by our ancestors, their fight for the general good and their bravery acts. But aside from these acts, the world's history is filled with infinite examples of man's cruelty, misconception or misinterpreted facts to the benefit of the few and the wrong of the many. Fascism is but one of such situations in which most of the parties involved had to suffer negative implications. Fascism represents a "totalitarian philosophy of government that glorifies the state and nation and assigns to the state control over every aspect of national life" (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2007). The current was most common in Italy, Spain, Portugal and Germany."
Abstract This paper examines how many critics and theorists have speculated about the reasons behind fascism and the horror of the holocaust in Nazi Germany before and during the Second World War, how violence was prevalent, and how Hitler used it to alternately intimidate and incite his followers. It attempts to determine the roots of these causes by examining the historical and social context that made Germany so ripe for fascism and dictatorship by 1933.
Outline
Historical Context: The Weimar Republic
World War 1 and Political Upheaval
The Treaty of Versailles
The Economy
Hitler and the Socialist Workers? Party
The Golden Era
The Rise of Hitler and Fascism Social Context: Functionalism
Structural Functionalism
Function
Structures
Interdependence
Equilibrium
Consensus
Conclusion
From the Paper "The German political structure in World War I (from 1916) had been subordinate to the military. At this time the country was an Empire, ruled by the Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL), or the Supreme Army Command. The Chief of Staff at this time was Paul von Hindenburg. At the end of the War the OHL installed a civil government for the benefit of the remainder of Germany after the war. The 1971 constitution was then amended. The Reich (Empire) had become a parliamentary democracy. The Parliament, or the Reichstag, instead of the Emperor, was now responsible for the political welfare of Germany. Such welfare was almost unattainable however, as the end of war meant returning soldiers. The fact that many of these soldiers were wounded both physically and psychologically brought chaos to the German society."
Abstract This paper presents the basic tenets of communism, claiming that they differ significantly from those of fascism. The paper contends that communism is highly egalitarian in its ideals, opposes the state, opposes private ownership of property, and opposes social classes. Fascism, on the other hand, is explained as non-egalitarian and supports the state's interests above all else. The paper explains that, although fascist and communist authoritarian regimes have manifested similarly in many countries, the two systems are ideologically opposed to each other. The paper agrees that both systems have taken on authoritarian and totalitarian forms, but contends that communism and fascism remain at opposite ends of the political spectrum.
From the Paper "Although fascist and communist authoritarian regimes have manifested similarly in many countries, the two systems are ideologically opposed to each other. Historically, communism has earlier roots than fascism; as a general social, political, and economic system, communism characterized many pre-agricultural societies that were stateless. Many religious and utopian communities were also communist, based on their communal practices and ideals. However, as it is generally referred to today, communism stems from the socialist traditions codified by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in their 1848 publication The Communist Manifesto. Technically, no government can be considered communist since communism necessitates the total abolition of a state government ("Communism"). However, because political parties can be communist in their platforms, those nations that are controlled by Communist political parties are referred to as communist for ease of reference."
Abstract This paper examines the many reasons why fascism caught on in Europe during the 1920s through the 1940s. It discusses how, whether in Italy, Germany, Spain, or some other fascist state, all fascist regimes had at least five main points in common, points that when analyzed both individually and collectively paint a pretty accurate picture of what fascism was all about. It concludes that fascism was just as much a reaction to the confusion and hardship brought on by the Great War and its economic ramifications, as well as the disillusionment with prior government policy, as it was a product of the vision of men like Mussolini, Hitler, or Franco.
From the Paper "Thirdly, all fascist nations shared in the idea that a great leader would emerge, rise up, and lead the nation to glory (paralleling the idea of Nietzsche's "Super Man"). "Just as National Socialism needed its enemies, so it also required its heroes. For... the Nazis turned once again to volkisch thought and the notion of the fuhrerprinzip (leadership principle), centered on a mystical figure embodying and guiding the nation's destiny..." (Welch, Modern European History, 145). The fourth binding principle that all fascist regimes share is a belief in racism, which stems from the idea of belonging to a specific group, a group based on race, where others (Jews in particular) become actively excluded (which is probably best evident in Nazi Germany). "
Tags: ultra, nationalism, nazis, Franco, Mussolini, Hitler
Abstract This paper focuses on the similarities and differences between the two totalitarian systems of fascism and communism. Some political analysts and thinkers maintain that Communism and fascism were not adversaries of each other, but rather shared some common values. While others are of the view that there existed some major differences which made one system the rival of the other. The paper addresses both views and then draws an impartial conclusion.
Abstract The paper makes the argument that Fascism experienced a limited reign in Italy and Germany and was a phenomenon limited to the period revolving around the two World Wars. The complex origins of each "brand" of fascism, their disparate foundations, the philosophical / practical differences and the elements of their mutual and simultaneous downfall are explored in detail.
Abstract This six-page undergraduate academic research paper examines and analyzes the rise of fascism in Germany, Italy, and Vichy France in terms of resolving the question of how mind-set and the lack of resistance contributed to fascism.
Abstract This paper examines how, in history, there have been a myriad of political concepts and how many of the strongest philosophies have been modifications of previous ideas, reinforcing the good points and altering the flaws. In particular, it looks at how Fascism,as implemented by Benito Mussolini after World War I, attempted to correct perceived weaknesses in Enlightenment ideas. It shows how it also attempted to instill discipline and how, ultimately, although it wasn?t successful, it is conceivable that in a different time it could have been. It provides a comparison of Fascism and Enlightenment ideas, showing where they agree, where they differ, and where they build upon each other.
From the Paper "At its peak, countless writers and philosophers added to the new methods of thinking. Voltaire was one of the most popular. Like many of his contemporaries, he didn?t, "seek knowledge for [his] own personal joy, but rather planned for the aggrandizement of humankind in a longer sense" (Rogers 66). In A Philosophical Dictionary, he created a piece that is representative of his time period. Inside, he muses about astrology, authority, democracy, and equality. This nature of multi-faceted philosophy was what the Enlightenment was about. Furthermore, another notorious figure was Jean Jacques Rousseau, who penned works about taboo topics like gender roles and humans in society."
