Abstract This paper discusses language acquisition and the evolution of language, describing models that have been proposed for the evolutionary development of the human language faculty and for the processes involved, with some empirical support for the different models. The paper concludes that the issue remains unresolved as far as deciding on one specific model over all others.
From the Paper "Language acquisition has been much studied as to ways in which speakers learn language in the first place, then learn other languages if they do and add words to their store of knowledge as an ongoing process. Another issue has been the origins of language of any sort, extending back as far in the historical record as possible and then considering how human beings may have first started communicating using a language. Different models have been proposed for the evolutionary development of the human language faculty and for the processes involved, with some empirical support for the different models. The issue remains unresolved as far as deciding on one specific model over all others. One view of the origin of language is discussed by Hewes 1992 and the idea that the first human language was primarily gestural, following the way various primates communicate (1992:65)."
Abstract The paper examines how language educators and researchers continue to debate how language is developed in humans. The paper further examines the differences between humans and other higher primates regarding language. The paper explores how, in order to gain more insight on how language evolved in early humans, researchers closely study language acquisition in primates.
From the Paper "What Stokoe finds most interesting is the turning of the head, just as signers of American Sign Language turn their head and gaze to mark a change from one part of a complex structure to another. Concludes Stokoe: Children are fortunate that elementary sign language preceded spoken language. As people get older, they forget how they used their bodies, eyes and heads. However, once speech is acquired at another stage and a person is fully articulate, it is still possible to go to "Nevada or Oklahoma and enter into conversation with a chimpanzee." "
Abstract This paper examines the question of what mathematical premises would be dependent on the biological and physical evolution of a given species, assuming of course that we knew other intelligent species had evolved. The writer discusses that some critics suppose that language and mathematics by extension are dependent upon the physical parameters set out by the body. The writer explains: ten fingers and hence a decimated numerical system. This essay probes that assumption.
From the Paper "There is almost certainly a connection between biology and the ability to conceptualize. The basic logical processes that we, as humans, often take for granted are in reality quite dependent upon our own physical evolution. How likely is it that we would have developed a base ten numerical system if we didn't just happen to have ten fingers? It would be perfectly plausible to have a base six system or base twelve, for example. But the question becomes how much of mathematics is a product of biological evolution and how much of it exists unto itself."
Abstract The evolution of a species, any species involves the complicated process of procreating, dealing with each other, and evolving in a manner that helps sustain life not diminish it. The questions that scientists ask about sex and behavior and evolution go to the heart of what makes us who we are. Nature is not perfect but it is clever. The study of sex and evolution has a great deal to tell us about how we have become what we have become. In addition, it can lead us to improve on areas--such as gender conflict--which threaten our survival.
Abstract This paper explains that communicative competence is made up of four competence areas: Linguistic, which is knowing how to use the language's grammar, syntax and vocabulary; sociolinguistic, knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately; discourse, knowing how to interpret the larger context and to construct a coherent whole and strategic, knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns by working around gaps in one's knowledge of the language. The author points out that communicative language teaching (CLT) began because educators and linguists were dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. The paper stresses that communicative language teaching places great emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions.
Table of Contents
Communicative Competence
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Principles and Characteristics of CLT
Communicative Activities
Teacher's Roles in Communicative Language Teaching
Implementation of CLT in ESL and EFL Countries
From the Paper "Other research studies focus on the difficulty attributed to the English as a first language environment. In 1996, studies by Stapleton pointed out how Confucianism as a belief system appears to be in tension with underlying notions of communicative language teaching. In these studies, Stapeton examined the theory that Confucianism establishes the superior status and knowledge of the teacher over that of the students, thus elevating the role of the teacher above the students. In 1998, Li studied teaching and learning in China, concluding that local conditions seem to be detrimental to communicative language teaching methodology."
The following paper examines the theories of bilingualism and multilingalism, language acquisition and language learning, making reference to a number of case studies.
Abstract The following paper examines the theories on language acquisition and looks at the useful distinction between acquisition and learning. The writer also comments on approaches and methods to teaching second and foreign languages. Lastly the writer comments on interference as a factor in language learning.
Table of Contents
Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Diglossia
First Language Acquisition
Using a text-mapping device to depict the important stages in first-language acquisition
Theories on how language is acquired
Innateness
Cognition
Input
Approaches and methods to teaching second and foreign languages Interference as a factor in language learning.
From the Paper "Diglossia is the coexistence of two forms of the same language in speech community. The one form will often be the literary or prestige dialect, and the other one can be a dialect commonly spoken by most of the population. The term diglossia could also be used to indicate bilingualism, or the speaking of two languages by the people of the same community. An example for the first definition is the use of Dutch in Belgium. Dutch is one of the official languages in Belgium. Dutch-speaking Belgians are called the "Flemish" where the French-speaking Belgians are called "Walloons". Dutch spoken by Belgians is also referred to as "Flemish", which is not a literary form of the language, but a spoken "dialect". They are different varieties of the same language."
Abstract This paper examines the criteria for measuring early language development, the concepts associated with ascertaining a child's developmental progress, the research supporting the prevailing theories and the significant findings inherent in credible research in these areas. It discusses how all over the globe young children seem to effortlessly acquire two or more languages at one time, while some uphold the belief that children who are exposed to multiple languages too early may experience developmental language delays and/or confusion. It evaluates how scientific research has attempted to examine whether young bilinguals can ascertain that they are acquiring two separate and distinct languages early on.
Outline
Introduction
Research and Analysis
Bilingual Paradox
Bilingual Deficit Hypothesis
Unitary Language System Hypothesis
Bilingual Advantage Hypothesis
Differentiated Language System Hypothesis
Vocabulary Development
The MacArthur CDI
Linguistic Milestones
Lexical Identifiers
Neutrals
Translation Equivalents
Interlocutor Sensitivity
Language Choice
Codemixing
Parental Discourse Strategies
Early Constraints
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "The line of thought that resembles popular opinion about whether or not children should be raised bilingual from birth is called the "Bilingual Paradox". It is a paradox because there are conflicting contemporary theories about whether or not it is the preferred method of introducing two languages. While much research shows that, by several measures, children who are exposed to two languages simultaneously between the ages of zero and three achieve major milestones within the same timeframe and with similar results as monolinguals, the contemporary line of thought has been to teach a child one language early on, reserving the introduction of a second language for the later school years. The thinking associated with the latter opinion is that introducing two languages early on will confuse the child, or that the child will be disadvantaged in mastery of one or both languages. There are, however, steps parents can take early on based on proven research to give their child an advantage in learning language skills. Methodologies, tools, timing mechanisms and support strategies have been developed through testing and observation that aids children in successful and timely language development, specifically in the adoption of multiple languages."
Abstract This paper discusses the different learning styles and language proficiency in terms of second language acquisition. It provides an overview of learning styles and their effects on language skills and variables. The paper looks at learning theories and contains an outline.
Tags: Learning style, language proficiency, second language acquisition, English as a second language
Abstract This paper discusses the evolutionary development of vertebrates and the corresponding development of the adaptive immune system. It argues that the adaptive immune response is superior to the innate response, thereby allowing for the evolution of larger and more complex species, specifically, the vertebrates.
From the Paper "Survival is at once both the most primitive and the most vital aim of every organism that has ever existed. Unfortunately, the survival of any organism depends most heavily on its ability to interact with the surrounding environment in such essential tasks as metabolism and respiration. For inherent within these necessary interactions is the risk of the compromise of that organism's integrity and separation from the surrounding atmosphere. The development by living beings of immunological protection against this bodily invasion by foreign matter and additional living beings was perhaps the single greatest accomplishment in the evolution of life on earth. For such immunity, grounded in an organism's ability to distinguish between self and non-self, affords an adaptive advantage unparalleled in any other system. With time and evolution, this immunological protection grew, and certainly continues to grow, increasingly more complex, resulting in the production of organisms ever more fit to prudently interact with the environment around them. The ultimate consequence is the establishment of species that, due to their superior level of adaptation through superior immunological protection, survive better in their given environment. Evidence in favor of this theory of immunological evolution is most apparent in the evolution of the somewhat primitive invertebrates into the more highly developed vertebrates. Aside from being more complex in terms of anatomy, the vertebrates exhibit vastly superior immunological protection from the surrounding environment; this protection is the very basis for the considerable anatomical development of vertebrates over invertebrates."
Abstract The evolution of Italian cinema, from the neorealism of the 1940s and early 1950s to the more personal realism of the late 1950s and early 1960s, was defined by complex forces at work in Italian cultural, political and economic life at the time.
Abstract This paper takes a look at the negative consequences to Americans and American society suffered as a result of minimal foreign language skills. The paper compares the minimal emphasis that the American educational system places on learning a foreign language to the much stronger emphasis placed on learning a foreign language in virtually all other countries and then explains why the American educational system would be wise to implement better foreign language programs and promote the acquisition of a foreign language.
From the Paper "The world has about 6,000 different languages, give or take a few. Linguists predict that at least half of those may have disappeared by the year 2050, which means languages are becoming extinct at twice the rate of endangered animals and four times the rate of endangered birds. Predictions are that a dozen languages may dominate the world of the future at best. (Ostler, 2002) For Americans, that's probably a good thing, since we are seemingly genetically engineered to maintain an appalling ignorance of other languages, and have narrowed down the choices we offer our young people to approximately one, Spanish, viewed by many to be the easiest foreign language to learn. It has been described in various places as having an ?impoverished vocabulary,? which means less work for Dick and Jane. The American education system so far is doing nothing to reverse the endangered languages trend, and much to promote it. In fact, there has been a criminal drop-off in foreign language study in American high schools."
Abstract This paper discusses the theory of evolution and natural and artificial selection. The paper attempts to understand why changes in the gene pool occur over time. The paper also examines how antibiotic resistance arises from natural selection.
Tags: theory of evolution, gene pool, natural selection, artifiical selection, antibiotic resistance
Abstract This paper explains that speakers of a language such as English in which the grammatical diminutive plays an insignificant part, the fact that other languages use the diminutive so frequently can seem rather quaint. The paper goes on to say that the diminutive is a highly useful grammatical structure, one that speakers of languages without a diminutive have to compensate for in various often less than elegant ways. This paper examines the grammatical diminutive in the Romance languages.
From the Paper "For speakers of a language such as English in which the grammatical diminutive plays an insignificant part, the fact that other languages use the diminutive so frequently can seem rather quaint. But the diminutive is, in fact, a highly useful grammatical structure, one that speakers of languages without a diminutive or with an anemic diminutive, as is the case in English, have to compensate for in various (often less than elegant) ways. This paper examines the grammatical diminutive in the Romance languages. We should begin by defining the grammatical..."
Abstract This paper traces the evolution of management principles from the classical school to the present. The paper also compares, contrasts and relates one or more of the different schools of management theory and practices in the current work environment.
From the Paper "Authoritarian or traditional management is the classical model of military governance applied to civilian purposes. Managers under an authoritarian doctrine value order, precision, consistency and obedience. Classical management theory originated during the industrial revolution that began in the late ?s. It required companies to look for the single best way for workers to perform tasks. The classical management model required senior managers to deal with everyday problems throughout the organization and at the same time to focus on tactical and strategic decision."
Tags: Management theories, evolution, Taylor, Classical, behavioral, scientific, Theory x and Theory y, worker motivation
Abstract The paper examines the possibility that biology, evolution and the development of mathematics are linked more closely than mathematicians would necessarily have us believe. The paper challenges the basic Platonist assumption that abstract mathematical concepts possess concrete being and are consequently fundamental parts of the universe. Instead, the paper discusses the possibility that mathematics is a construction of the human mind and an evolutionary development.
From the Paper "Most often we take mathematical truth for granted. Rather than understand it as an historical construction - not so different from any other human production, such as language - most people fully believe that mathematics is natural and etched into the very fabric of the cosmos. This is a classic Platonist view of the universe in which even abstract concepts have physical reality. Twentieth century theorists, especially in linguistics, have repeatedly challenged the efficacy of abstract concepts. But mathematics is still, in some part, understood to be the realm of the gods with right-brains their unerring prophets."
