Abstract This paper explains that Baruch Spinoza, the first Jewish pantheist, rejected the monopoly held by the clergy over the political power in the Jewish community, was a champion of intellectual freedom and had followers including members of the Islamic community. The author points out that Spinoza was one of the first philosophers to marry Jewish thought with the emerging ideas of the Enlightenment and was more receptive to contemporary Western thought than any Jewish philosopher since Maimonides. The paper relates that Spinoza went to Constantinople, where Jews were emancipated; the community in Constantinople contributed to Spinoza's ideas of intellectual freedom and, in 1664, Spinoza published the "Treatise on God, Man and his Well-Being" marrying Jewish scripture to contemporary philosophy.
From the Paper "However controversial, Spinoza's viewpoint on God was not unprecedented. Spinoza's version of God was firmly planted in Mediaeval Jewish mysticism, which was closely allied to the Neo-Platonic philosophical tradition of Late Antiquity, as it had been developed during the 9th Century intellectual development of Islam. "The fundamental thing to keep in mind when thinking about Spinoza is one simple, striking, and paradoxical proposition: God is the only thing that exists." The idea is not that God is everything, but that nothing can exist independently from God. While reductionists may want to claim Spinoza as their own, Spinoza envisioned a thinking God. In addition, "although Spinoza was condemned by his community for the heresy of saying that God has a body," he actually believed that God was much more than a body."
Abstract This paper explores some of the key ideas and participants in the Age of Enlightenment. The paper examines the Age of Enlightenment, in terms of its significance on influencing the historical record. It describes this period of philosophical advancement and discusses how the period was affected by the Age of Reason in which scientific theories were explored with increasing significance, and how that gave rise to a new understanding of humankind's relationship with the world.
From the Paper "Assessing Enlightenment Thought and the Works of Key Enlightenment Figures Introduction When examined in terms of its significance on influencing the historical record, the Age of Enlightenment was one of the most profoundly significant periods in European history. The Enlightenment is a period of philosophical advancement that, when coupled with the corresponding Age of Reason in which scientific theories were explored with increasing significance, gave rise to a new understanding of humankind's relationship with the world. This paper shall explore some of the key ideas and participants in the Age of Enlightenment. The Principles and Participants in the Age of Enlightenment The concept of empirical thought was fundamental to the Age of Enlightenment; while brief glimpses of empiricism were seen in the Renaissance, those active within the Enlightenment tended to perceive associations between objects that were directly caused by action and reaction (Gay, 12-13)."
Abstract The paper examines how the age of Enlightenment is a remarkable period in human history. The writer proposes that never before, not even in the era of Arabic and Greco-Roman philosophers, has there been such strong influences predisposing an intellectual revolution. The paper describes how the Renaissance had ushered in a new way of looking at the world, but those working within the Enlightenment period worked to define new modes of thought or clarify new directions for accepted areas of discourse. This paper briefly outlines why these topics are critical to modern thinking.
From the Paper "Alan Charles Kors' expansive Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment is difficult to describe in brief; the text contains more than three hundred individual articles on the enlightenment and the wide range of influences that both contributed to and were affected by the Enlightenment period. The scope of these many articles reflects upon not just the Enlightenment period but also help define and describe how change affects all human beings, regardless of their social and cultural circumstances. The Age of Enlightenment is a remarkable period in human history. Never before, not even in the era of Arabic and Greco-Roman philosophers, had there been such strong influences predisposing an intellectual revolution."
Abstract This paper explains that, unlike the gradual, cultural shift of ideas and attitudes, which characterized the Enlightenment, the Protestant Reformation had concrete institutional causes and was a profound institutional change in the governmental and religious structure of Europe. The author points out that the Enlightenment, which ultimately spawned the American and French Revolutions of the late 18th century, was not spurred into being by an increasingly strong set of nation-states like the Reformation but rather by the increasingly weak, corrupt and ossified monarchies of Europe, such as Louis of France and George of Great Britain. The paper relates that the intent of the Enlightenmentphilosophers was not to reject tradition in their quest for knowledge or to eradicate entirely the institutions, which had stimulated their own intellectual development.
From the Paper "During the pre-Reformation, the age of the Renaissance, secular kingdoms with increasingly powerful chief executives and the decline of feudalism weakened the Pope's role in the political power plays of Europe. Before, popes had great power as they were the strongest land-owners in Europe, but now princes began to command armies of lords--secular power was less diffuse. And by far, the most famous allegations of Martin Luther against the Catholic Church were its sale of indulgences, which seemed to embody the church's craven and worldly institutional nature."
Abstract The paper explains how Benjamin Franklin's and Thomas Jefferson's works (Autobiography and Declaration of Independence respectively) reflect the Enlightenment beliefs. The paper continues by briefly describing the Enlightenment movement and its ideas. The paper also examines why the United States was considered "a child of the Enlightenment."
From the Paper "Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were the leading intellectuals in eighteenth-century America. Both thinkers were steeped in the traditions of the Enlightenment and both earned praise for their erudition from Europeans at a time when America was considered a howling wilderness. David Hume, the Scottish philosopher, deemed Franklin the leading man of letters on the North American continent. Jefferson, for his part, was the brain behind the American Revolution."
Tags: Franklin, Jefferson, Enlightenment, Declaration of Independence
Abstract In their essay, "The Concept of Enlightenment," authors Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno chart the process of humanity's efforts to better understand their place within existence, a process that Horkeimer and Adorno refer to as efforts to become enlightened through exploring the influences and, to varying degrees, the abandonment of the practices of mythology, magic and theology. This paper explores these issues in contrast with the Holocaust.
From the Paper "The current rise of science as a dominant world view and thus the method through which human beings are currently able to frame issues beyond their immediate range of experience and perception is, Horkeimer and Adorno believe, merely the latest dominant model through which human beings are seeking to explore the world and achieve a more enlightened state of mind."
Abstract The paper is based on an article about the results of "Newtonianism", and includes two other brief references to show the decline of Roman Catholic authority and the rise of secular science and reason. The paper examines how this occurred mainly in northern and central Europe, ending the medieval period's combined power of church and state .The paper explains which elements have been carried on to the present, asking a final question of how much of western culture is not a result of the Enlightenment.
From the Paper "Scientific and intellectual developments of the 17th century in Europe made for great popular faith in human reason that came to influence, strongly, ideas and activities in the next two centuries. By separating science from the absolute authority of religion that had dominated much of European society, for centuries, all phenomena came to be discussed according to objective, scientific models. Through the medieval period that gave way to the Enlightenment, a very paternal attitude had been taken in which free thinking was seen as dangerous by the Church that had great influence over all social life, and also, political life."
This paper addresses five questions from the views of classic philosophers. Human nature and human advantages can be investigated according to the theories of various philosophers, yet in many respects the views of a specific philosopher can best be used
1,150 words (approx. 4.6 pages), 5 sources, 2002, $ 44.95
Abstract This paper addresses five questions from the views of classic philosophers. Human nature and human advantages can be investigated according to the theories of various philosophers, yet in many respects the views of a specific philosopher can best be used to define and describe a particular circumstance. This paper first presents the five questions and then addresses these questions according to the two theories that best suit that given circumstance.
Tags: PHILOSOPHY / COMPARATIVE PHILOSOPHY, five question philosophers
Abstract In this paper, the writer describes the meaning and symbolism found in Hans Christian Anderson's "The Philosopher's Stone". The author examines the allegorical meaning behind the garden motif and blindness in the story. The paper also considers the intellectual times in which Anderson wrote this work, including the problems facing the 19th century. Despite these problems, Anderson concludes with encouraging his audience to have faith in humanity.
From the Paper "The mid to late 19th century was a time of questioning and change. It was the period that saw the prominence of revolutionary thinkers like Freud, Marx, and Darwin and literary innovators like Dickens and Zola. Thinking people of the period questioned what had come before them, but more importantly questioned what life had become. Social commentary and revolutionary thinking took center stage in this period (Morris). Hans Christian Andersen's tale "The Philosopher's Stone" comments on what has become of life by seeking the answer to one of the most important questions for humanity: What happens after death? Andersen uses this question to guide his tale. As Andersen has the characters search for the Philosopher's Stone, he weaves social commentary into the tradition of fairy tales in this piece from 1859."
Tags: Hans, Christian, Anderson, Philosopher's, Stone, allegory
This paper discusses the Age of Reason and the Age of Enlightenment and its most prominent philosophers: Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant.
Abstract This paper explains that, while the Age of Reason is generally considered a separate movement in 17th and early 18th century Europe that evolves into the Age of Enlightenment, both eras are considered to have overlapping boundaries and to be one extended period of intellectual, scientific and philosophical advancement. The author points out that, while Voltaire's most memorable and influential work is "Candide" and Kant is famous for his philosophy of "Universal Law", Rousseau's most meaningful works are his "Second Discourse" and his "Social Contract". The paper concludes that the philosophical writings and intellectual discoveries of the philosophers of the Ages of Reason and of Enlightenment helped to start the American and French Revolutions.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Voltaire
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Immanuel Kant
Conclusion: The "Enlightenment" led to the American and French Revolutions
From the Paper "Rousseau's logic was that disobedience, then, would be "legitimate" as soon as "sufficient power was acquired." Part of what Rousseau was accomplishing in this writing was a rebuttal to Hobbes, who had asserted in chapters 5 and 6 of "De Cive" and ..., that right and force should always go hand-in-hand. Hobbes' reasoning was that mere words (laws), without the "sword" to back them up, were not sufficient to stay the course. You can't just issue degrees without having the use of force lurking in the background to make sure those degrees have some "teeth" so to speak. But Rousseau rejected that idea."
Abstract This paper provides a comprehensive background on the historical context of the Age of Enlightenment. It explains that the philosophical principles of the Age of Enlightenment encompassed a number of important doctrines, but the underlying premise was that of logic and reason applied scientifically to faith and religion, social order, and government. It examines the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who contributed a number of arguments suggesting that a "social contract" be established, so that the State and Man should work hand in hand in order to establish moral equality.
From the Paper "Rousseau makes several suggestions as to how a true civil society would function. One, that private property is a cause of a lot of problems when it comes to equality and liberty of the people, and should be considered less equal. Two, that the legislator should embody the ideas of the social contract. Three, that in addition to people's private faith that there should exist a civil religion of a general belief as to keeping the society linked together by this bond."
Abstract This paper analyzes the philosophers Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau and discusses their opinions on the French Revolution. The paper looks at each stage of the revolution and provides an outline of various topics concerning enlightenment. The connection between the age of enlightenment and the French Revolution is also explored in this paper.
From the Paper "The Age of Enlightenment was a period in time culminating during the 18th century when the trends of thought changed in Europe. The French Revolution was a series of events at the turn of the 19th century in France that changed all aspects of French life. The sequential alignment of these eras in history is hardly coincidence; in fact, there is much of a cause-effect relationship. In this paper we will explore this connection. Vitally involved in this progression of thought and action are the philosophes, intellectual men that drove the advent of scientific inquiry Three major philosophes were Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau. Among many others, their ideas were molded and manifested into political, social, and economic institutions across Europe, climaxing in historical landmarks like the French Revolution. This paper will explore the connections between these Enlightenment leaders and the French Revolution."
Tags: european, france, history, politics, individual, community, society, economics
Abstract The writer explores different theories for social improvement as studied by philosophers over time. The paper looks at how some philosophers in history compromised with the government, while others chose a more rebellious attitude towards authority, hence standing by the greater minorities. The writer concludes that it is during enlightenment that intellectuals become a real threat to authority, thereby "waking up" society to the reality that has been ruling them. The paper leans towards the view that society needs philosophers to keep humanity in the real world.
From the Paper "Intellectuals have been regarded in history as the philosopher- sovereigns of human conscience. In the dark ignorance of man kind, they have stepped forth in man's finest hours, possessing the intelligent excellence and will, to push humanity forward. These men and women have a distinct role in society- beyond the material- experience and situations in everyday life- they explore and offer new theories of knowledge and improvement. Most of the visionaries, theorists and scientists are driven by a deep passionate search for truism."
Abstract Both Voltaire and Moliere concentrated on expanding the period of Enlightenment with the exploration of the human soul through growth and change in literature. The philosophers of the Age of Reason (the Enlightenment) believed that each person has a rational will, which makes it possible to make and carry out plans. Animals, they declared, are slaves of their emotions. When an animal is afraid of something, it tries to escape. When an animal is angry, it fights. However, people can figure out the best course of action when they are afraid, angry, or in trouble. In addition, people can make themselves do the right thing, instead of doing only what may seem easier or more appealing. Both Voltaire and Moliere promoted these concepts and employed them directly within their respective works "Candide" and "Tartuffe". It is the purpose of this paper to examine the primary characters of "Candide" and Orgon separately and together to form a larger concept of who they were and what they represented in their stories.
Abstract This essay discusses philosopher Immanuel Kant's approach to the Enlightenment as presented in his work, "What is Enlightenment". The author of the paper addresses the following questions: Why did Kant choose to address the Enlightenment as he did? Is his approach as narrow as it seems to be? What exactly was the Enlightenment? Was it arborescent or rhizomatic? Depending on how it is defined, what approach should be taken to this phenomenon?
From the Paper "The Enlightenment is an enigma in that it represents an abrupt transition from the thought of the preceding period with a subsequent transformation of all social and cultural institutions. Yet, Kant treats the Enlightenment by using an apparently very narrow focus which leads to numerous problems. "
