A discussion on how the responses to the plague in medieval and earlymodernEurope can be best characterized as early examples of the operation of disciplinary power.
Abstract This paper discusses Michel Foucault's contention of the plague as a historical phenomenon, out of which a controlling, intrusive and discursively powerful form of modern rule emerged in Europe. The paper relates that, from a retrospective look at the responses to the plague in mediaeval and earlymodernEurope, it is tempting to conclude that the responses represented clear early examples of disciplinary power in action. Moreover, plague regimes appear to have been interventionist, controlling and totalizing. The paper then explains that this view leads to a distorted understanding of power as all-encompassing when, in reality, it was anything but. The paper concludes that it would be historically inaccurate to leave the impression that these plague regimes were omnipotent, for the simple reason that the enforcement of power was a messy, contested and negotiated process. There is also a limit to seeking examples of disciplinary power in a past period that Foucault himself did not necessarily see as completely emblematic of his theory.
Outline:
Introduction
Power as Interventionist and Controlling
Power as Limited and Hyped
Conclusion
From the Paper "Certainly England did eventually move towards a continental style of control. But this move, instigated under the rule of Charles I, was quickly abandoned following the outbreak of the Civil War. (Naphy and Spicer, 2000, p.100) Even if this plan had been carried out by the Crown, which had by and large succeeded in setting up pest houses throughout the rest of the kingdom, London would surely have resisted, for it rejected a system of pest houses in favour of continuous home quarantine, which obviated the need for "an extensive and expensive system of workers". (Naphy and Spicer, 2000, p.126) More significantly, London insisted on relying upon local and national charities as well as normal taxation to fund measures to cope with the plague rather than resort to a special plague tax that would have made the victims of disease wholly dependent on the benevolence of the state - to this extent inhabitants were not subject to the totalizing power of the state. (Naphy and Spicer, 2000, p.126) "
Abstract The two texts that are used in order to investigate this concept is the work, "Galileo's Daughter" by Dava Sobel and "Women and Gender in EarlyModernEurope" by Merry Wiesner. These two texts clarify the differences that occurred in the treatment of men and women, where the role of women was established through unbendable social norms that were intricately woven into the fabric of society.
Abstract This paper explains that historians argue that the economic crises experienced during the early-modern period across most of Europe and the subsequent population growth, which led to an inability for many of these individual markets to support their respective populations, was a type of Malthusian trap. The author points out that the Malthusian trap is the principle, based on Malthus' theory of population and economics, which observes that man is inclined to propagate beyond his means to support the population. The paper relates that the application of this principle to earlymodernEurope is often a misguided attempt to redirect the historical research to a socio-historic perspective rather than a purely economic perspective. The author concludes that, while certain markets in Europe might indeed have become over-populated with respect to their ability to provide basic levels of sustenance for their populations, other countries, such as England, did not suffer such a population growth and, furthermore, managed to maintain relatively stable economic growth in spite of Europe's overall economic decline during this period. The paper includes an annotated bibliography.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Malthus on Population Growth
Technological Impact
Conclusion
From the Paper "In an artificial economy established in an economic lab such set ratios can be accurately predictive. However, in the natural environment, there are many external factors that would affect change on his model, and did affect change. Prices are a key oversight in his theory. While the basic premise that population growth may outstrip the growth in food productivity was true based on the circumstances within which he operated, he didn't account for the economics of food productivity to drive an increase in production worldwide that offset any local market conditions and shortages in supply."
Abstract This paper makes the argument that the principal factor in state formation across Europe was the power of monarchs to centralise and increase their effectiveness to rule in European states. Specifically, the author makes the assertion that the monarchies of Europe created earlymodern state formation through the centralisation of government institutions, military expansion, financial restructuring, dynastic marriage and the use of tools created through the scientific revolution.
From the Paper "This centralisation and increased effectiveness of tax administration in the Early Modern era allowed a larger revenue to be collected into the royal coffers, in turn meaning that more money could be pumped into the greatest expense for any Early Modern leader, the military. As military tactics and technology dictated an increased cost in the waging of war, so it was realised that the more effective a bureaucracy was, the more effective royal armies could be. The centralisation of resources for armies created a unique situation whereby relatively small countries such as England and the Netherlands were able to wage-war with more demographically prosperous countries such as France and Spain. 'Good' government also came through the scrupulous effectiveness of taxation: the less money that stuck to the hands of local barons and entered the royal treasuries, the more the central power of the monarch could spend on consolidating the state through standing armies and more charismatic schemes. This meant the population of a country would see both centralisation and state formation in a beneficial light."
Abstract The purpose of this paper will be to compare and contrast the nature and role of government in the economic development of early-modern Spain with that in early-modern Holland.
This paper discusses Max Weber's "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism", which theorizes on the role of religion in the emergence of capitalism in earlymodernEurope.
Abstract This paper explains that, in his seminal work "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism", Max Weber provided a new perspective of the emergence of capitalism by asserting that what made Europe or the Occident develop into a capitalist economy was because the majority of its people observed the Protestant ethic as their way of life, rationalizing that people's everyday actions are a pre-requisite for a society to develop into a capitalist economy. The author contends that the development of capitalism in earlymodernEurope was the result not only of Protestantism but also of Catholicism. The paper states that the generalization that religion had become the catalyst for capitalism to flourish in the continent is supported by the fact that religious institutions before and during the onset of capitalism have dominated the socio-political realms of Western societies, leaving no doubt that they also control the economic activities and institutions present in the society.
From the Paper "Indeed, capitalism is "a very complex system of institutions, highly rational in character and the product of a number of developments peculiar to Western civilization." Those who are unable to adapt to these 'complex systems of institutions' and 'rational character' are bound to be left behind in the process, neither achieving development nor economic success. Moreover, those who are unable to adapt to this system are bound to maintain the "anxiety of not knowing" and "fear of damnation." Thus, in order to be included in the capitalist economic system, one has to integrate himself/herself to these complex systems of institutions through labor and attain a rational character by conducting profit-making activities. Through labor and profit-making activities, one involves in the "spirit of capitalism" and accomplishes what Weber has termed as the Protestant ethic."
Abstract A complex combination of Christian orthodoxy and patriarchal domination influenced the world-view of England between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that led people to associate witches with evil or Satan and wizards with divinity or supernatural power. This paper explains why witchcraft favored men whereas accused women.
Abstract This paper attempts to determine how the concept of and care for madness changed from century to century in EarlyModernEurope. The paper discusses what influenced the concept of madness, what was done with mad people, how they were treated, the different meanings and definitions of madness, and the role gender played in the identification and treatment of madness. The resources used for this paper are appended.
From the Paper "Research is crucial to the advancement of science, be it medical, psychological and, or, any number of the sciences. A look into the past often allows a deeper understanding of the theories, processes and ideologies of the present. Many scholars have provided insight into the institutions and concepts of mental health from a historical perspective, Michel Foucault, Roy Porter and Andrew Skull among them. The care of the mentally ill has evolved from the concept of social control. Where once it was the responsibility of the family and, or, community to control mad or abnormal behavior ; it is now seen as the responsibility of the medical community. Care for the mentally ill was also the responsibility of the family or community, then the religious organization, private asylums and, eventually, the medical profession and hospitalization. During the medieval era, the king was sometimes held responsible for the "lunatic" and his or her family."
This essay takes a look at ModernEurope from a micro-historical perspective, weighing the benefits of micro-history against the broad perspective of macro-history.
Abstract This essay explores ModernEurope and, more specifically, modern Italy, with a micro-historical magnifying glass. By exploring specific incidences and personal accounts, the micro-histories tell the stories that the macro-histories often overlook. By taking a detailed look at the "Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara," by David Kertzer, the Papal hierarchy and the changing tides in Europe, this essay highlights all the small steps that are taken in order to make giant leaps in history.
From the Paper "The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara artfully skews the boundaries that traditionally separate macro-history from micro-history. In his meticulous account of Edgardo Mortara, David Kertzer intimately reveals the controversial struggles endured by the Mortara family in mid-nineteenth century Italy. The tyrannical conventions of old-regime papal authority discordantly clash with the emerging post-enlightenment ideology as Kertzer places the fate of a young Jewish boy in context with European anti-Semitism and Italian unification. Throughout the course of his historic narrative, David Kertzer skillfully analyzes the infrastructure of Italian authority and explains how changes in public opinion throughout the world ultimately resulted in the downfall of papal dominance. Surprisingly ignored by most modern historians, Kertzer portrays the Mortara incident as a pivotal point in Italian unification and the institutional collapse of the church."
This paper review an article written by historian Benjamin Kaplan "Fictions of Privacy: House Chapels and the Spatial Accommodation of Religious Dissent in EarlyModernEurope".
675 words (approx. 2.7 pages), 1 source, 2005, $ 26.95
Abstract This paper explains that historian Benjamin Kaplan in his article "Fictions of Privacy" explores the EarlyModern Period in Europe and details the negotiation between the private and the public as it related to religious practice. The author points out that the article reveals the incongruous setting for religious observance in many EarlyModern European homes. The paper concludes that the creation of the private/public demarcation was vital to preventing violence and bloodshed.
From the Paper "Benjamin Kaplan's "Fictions of Privacy: House Chapels and the Spatial accommodation of Religious Dissent in Early Modern Europe", is a very intriguing and worthwhile article. The introduction to the article is excellent, inasmuch as it vividly - and unexpectedly - reveals the incongruous setting for religious observance in many Early Modern European homes - the house attic (2002, 1031). The article then proceeds to launch into a very detailed description of the 'attic chapel' (1031-1033); this description is accompanied on page 1033 with a photo. What is significant about the article's introduction is that, in surprising the reader by first portraying the former residence of the long-departed Jan Hartmann as simply a well-preserved dwelling from the past, the surreptitious nature of the house chapel is under-scored."
Abstract This paper examines the development of nationalism in modern China, from the Han response to the Qing government to anti-imperialist agitation and republicanism under the guidance of Sun Yatsen. It looks briefly at the New Culture Movement and the role of secret societies such as the Tongmeng hui.
From the paper:
"Nationalism has been a defining ideology in the creation of Modern China, promoted at first by a series of secret societies, and later by both the Guomingdang and the Chinese Communist Party to achieve different ends. It was central to the early student movements, and the May Fourth Movement, and nationalism was the first of Sun Yatsen's Three Principles of the People. In its early stages, Chinese nationalism was based on ethnic and racial identity, and centered on Han identity, however over time the significance of ethnic identity has decreased. Foreign influence in the conceptualization of Chinese nationalism has been problematic to developing a clear understanding of the movement; despite this, nationalism developed in a particularly Chinese manner."
Abstract The paper explains that modernism is a term used to describe the styles of architecture, arts and literature of the twentieth century. The paper defines the style of modernism in architecture as a form that takes on a clean line and functional focus. The paper discusses how the contemporary world still feels the effect of the modernist influence. The paper concludes that one must wonder if it is on its way to becoming the new traditionalism.
From the Paper "Modernism is a term used to describe the styles of architecture, arts and literature of the twentieth century. The style of modernism in architecture describes a form that takes on a "clean" line and functional focus. It is a "rational" form of architecture that uses non-traditional forms and materials. According to "Contemporary Architects" on the Edinburgh Architecture website: Modern Architecture became linked to a certain genre of building and thus over time wasn't really 'modern' anymore. Contemporary Architecture currently has less baggage; it is not affected by fall-out from the reign of a certain style."
A look at the reconstruction of family composition in Europe during the earlymodern period of the 17th and 18th centuries by historians such as P. Laslett.
Abstract The paper examines the reconstruction of family composition in 17th and 18th centuries by historian, P. Laslett in his book "The World We Have Lost". It explores why some theories such as the late age of first marriage that was apparently unique to pre-modernEurope, have not been challenged, while others, such as the notion of a stable nuclear pattern, have been disputed at length.
From the Paper "Because early modern Europe was principally a rural and class-based society, the family structure during this era was highly reliant upon on social rank. When there was land and money at stake, marriage within the same social class was paramount. The poor were also limited to marrying within their social class, but had a larger pool of potential mates from which to choose. This was a time in history in which two-generation households, rather than three-generation households, were customary. The oldest members of the household traditionally bestowed any holdings they had to the next generation upon retirement, and remained in close proximity to the family. The close support that existed between relatives living in separate but neighboring homes makes it difficult to distinguish whether the independent nuclear family was the basic family unit during this time, or whether it was actually the extended family (Laslett, 1984)."
Abstract A discussion of 19th century Socialism in Europe, firstby giving a brief background on the subject then highlighting the concept of socialism in France, Germany and England. It looks at the work of early socialists, the rise of socialism, and lastly socialism in France, Germany & Russia. It concludes with a look at the current state of socialism in the world.
Background
The Early Socialists in Europe The Early Concept of Socialism in France, Germany and England
The Rise of Socialism
Socialism in France
Socialism and Austria
Socialism and Germany
Socialism in Russia
The Failure of the System
Conclusion
Works Cited
From the Paper "It was in the first half of the 19th Century when the working classes in the newly established industrializing countries, England and Germany undergo several forms of developments (Lemke, 1992). For instance, the old feudal limitations had been fixed peasants in place on the land as well as restricted their income further guaranteed a place for them in the world."
Tags: concept, early, england, france, germany, rise, russia, socialists
