Abstract
This paper looks at the relationship between stuttering, a speech disorder of dysfluency, which is classified as a speech problem and expressive language problems, which are classified as language disorders. It discusses how stuttering can appear to be a relatively minor communication problem, as the person knows what he or she wants to say and how it is the ability to communicate that separates us from the other animals. It demonstrates how communication is central to what makes us human and how stuttering can disrupt the normal rhythm of social interaction.

Outline
Introduction
Cause
Language Skills and Fluency
Research on the Topic
Discussion
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Recent research in brain imaging has produced interesting new information. MRI's used to compare the brains of stutterers and non-stutterers showed anatomical differences in two areas used in language production: Broca's area and Wernicke's area (Perkins, 2001). This could easily lead one to assume that the cause of stuttering is a structural brain difference, but this might be an incorrect interpretation. The brain is plastic, and it is possible that these areas change over time as a result of the stuttering. However, it does give evidence regarding the involuntary nature of dysfluency (Perkins, 2001). Other neurological research suggests that the right hemisphere may be interfering with the language activities of the left hemisphere (Sobel, 2001). Other research implicates other parts of the brain. The region of the brain that processes hearing is active when fluent speakers speak but underactive when stutterers speak."

Tags:speech, communication, social, interaction, brain

Abstract
This paper relates that hypotheses that attempt to explain stuttering point to the roots of this condition in the neurophysiology and/or neuropsychology of the individual experiencing the dysfluency. The paper further discusses that, while theories do exist that place stuttering into a behavior dependant on learning and conditioning due to environmental aspects, the fact remains that stuttering, whether learned or conditioned, is the result of a neurophysiological response manifested as dysfluent speech. The paper maintains that, upon examination of the nature of stuttering both in terms of research into etiology and effective treatment, the conclusion that stuttering is the result of brain damage is the one most applicable and probable.

From the Paper
"According to earlier research statistics, approximately 25 to 35 percent of individuals who have developed stuttering sustained a form of brain damage, either at birth or during early childhood (Guitar, 2006). The reported factors, including anoxia at birth, premature birth, head injury, and mild cerebral palsy, all point to a disruption in the fetal development of a normal central nervous system (Guitar, 2006). Since there appears to be this correlation between brain damage and stuttering, research has been done to determine how brain functions are different in these individuals. Electroencephalographic (EEG) studies have shown a possible right-hemisphere dominance in terms of language production in individuals who stutter and cerebral blood flow (CBF) studies have shown these results as well (Guitar, 2006). "

Tags:speech, neurophysiological, dysfluent

Abstract
This paper explains that stuttering is a complex disorder, with an etiology and severity level that varies from case to case. The author selected "Harry Potter" and "Primal Fear" as examples of stuttering stereotypes in films because, in both films, a character faked his disorder to convey a falsehood to people that he hoped to deceive. The paper relates that treating stuttering should be focused on the patient's hearing, seeing, feelings, and the effects the disorder has had on the person's personality.

Table of Contents
Stereotypes Displayed in Films
"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone"
"Primal Fear"
Etiology of Stuttering
Myths, Misconceptions and Multiple Causes
Diagnosis
Treatment
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Parents who are concerned that their preschool-age child may be a stutterer should be aware that what is considered "normal" dysfluency can occur in ten of every one hundred spoken words. ( More recently, it has been suggested that dysfluencies can be categorized as "stuttering-like" or "other". Stutter-like dysfluencies include blocks, repetitions, and prolongations. Other dysfluencies include interjections, revisions or deserted statements, and repetitions of phrases or multi-syllables."

Tags:logophobia, modification, disorders, dysfluencies, stereotypes

Abstract
This paper defines stuttering as a speech fluency problem found primarily in school-age children. It differentiates between primary and secondary symptoms that often accompany it. The paper suggests a number of possible causes of stuttering and suggests that both inborn and environmental factors may play a role. After discussing the possible effects of stuttering on the social and cognitive development of the child, the author discusses the various treatment methods available.

Outline:
Introduction
Etiology
Effects on social and cognitive development
Treatment
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Converging theory suggests that the cause of shuttering is multi-factorial, inclusive of genetic, neuro-physiological and psychological causes that render a child to have poor speech fluency. Even though research evidence does not show that concern or conflicts constitute the reason behind stuttering or that person who suffer from stuttering have higher levels of psychological disturbances compared to those with other forms of speech and language disorders, stuttering can be aggravated by certain traumatic situations. The other theories regarding the cause of stuttering cover organic as well as learning models. Organic models cover those that concentrate on unfinished lateralization or abnormal cerebral dominance. A lot of studies using EEG revealed that stuttering males had a problem of right-hemispheric alpha suppression across stimulus words and assignments while non-stutterers had left-hemispheric suppression. Some studies of stutterers have observed an excessive representation of left-handedness as well as ambidexterity. (Sadock; Kaplan; Sadock, 2007)"

Tags:dysfluency speech therapy, cognitive development, King George VI