Abstract
The paper examines Jean de Lery's "History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil" that was published in 1578, and is regarded as one of the great works of early ethnography. The paper explains that Lery was writing from a particular point of view, that of a French Huguenot, who was living in a time of religious strife in France. The paper relates that he had trained for the ministry, and in 1556 he and thirteen other Calvinists went to Brazil, at the invitation of Nicolas Durand de Villegagnon, a Catholic who was trying to start a French colony in Brazil.

From the Paper
"Jean de Lery's "History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil" was published in 1578, and is regarded as one of the great works of early ethnography. As with all other ethnographers, Lery was writing from a particular point of view. In his case, it was that of a French Huguenot, who was living in a time of religious strife in France. He had trained for the ministry, and in 1556 he and thirteen other Calvinists went to Brazil, at the invitation of Nicolas Durand de Villegagnon, a Catholic who was trying to start a French colony in Brazil. After a four month trip by sea, as well as a long voyage by land, Lery's party arrived. Villegagnon greeted them..."

Tags:brazil, lery, history

Abstract
Patrick O'Brian's novel "Master and Commander", brings life at sea to life by focusing on strong characterization and themes that accentuate these characters. The paper explains how O'Brian introduces us to Jack and Stephen, two main characters that are strong, complimentary, and different enough from one another to provide a different take on life at sea. The paper shows that, in addition, O'Brian employs the theme of man versus man and man versus nature to build the plot and enhance the action of the novel. These elements operate together to create a novel that provides us a realistic sense of what life at sea was like during the nineteenth century.

From the Paper
"Another theme O'Brian uses is man versus nature. Because they are at sea, they are at the mercy of the elements. The crew endures the elements of the weather as they sail. For example, in one scene, the ship encounters a storm with intense rainfall as the "seas mounted higher and higher: they were not the height of the great Atlantic rollers, but they were steeper, and in a way more wicked; their heads tore off streaming in front of them so as to race through the Sophie's tops" (153). Here we see how the men at sea had to be courageous not only with other men but they also had to be strong when it came to withstanding the harsh elements of nature, over which they had no control."

Tags:Dorothe Engelbretsdotter, Sophie, Cacafuego Citouen, Durand

Abstract
The paper studies the history of James Braid , the father of hypnotism. It shows how his interest in the field began with a mesmerist named Lafontaine, and developed into his own research. The author of the paper shows how Braid discovered that a hypnotic state could be induced by fixating the eyes on a single moving object placed in a position such that the muscles of the eye become fatigued, and how Braid's findings influenced many psychologists, including Sigmund Freud. The author shows too, how, after Braid's death in 1860, his influence faded, and only his book Neurypnology remains to carry on his ideas.

From the Paper
"Besides hypnotism, I found no other reference to James Braid. He may not have done anything else of importance in his career, but his accomplishments changed psychology in many ways: the concepts of sleeping and unconsciousness, the minds control over the body, pain control, and subconscious thought. I find it uphauling that crackpots like Mesmer receive so much more recognition than Braid does. Mesmer may have made some interesting discoveries, but they were accidents products of theatrical showboating. Braid made real contributions, but only faded into history. He may not have been extravagant, but his research formed the groundwork for many psychologists to come."

Tags:magnetizer, mesmersm, hypnotic, state, Charles, Richet, Azam, Broca, Durand, de, Gros, Valpeau, Charcot, Liebeault

Abstract
The Shining Path terrorist group launched a series of attacks in Peru, terrorizing the country for decades before they were beaten back in a 1990's crackdown. However, in March 2002, a car bomb attack near the United States embassy in Lima made Peruvian citizens recall their fears of terrorism. While the Shining Path has remained low-key for several years, the national and state government still recognize it as a terrorist organization. This paper takes a look at this group, including its history and leadership, structure and activities.

From the Paper
"The Shining Path was defeated for many reasons. For one, there was a lack of support among large sectors of the population as the group used authoritarian methods against peasants, workers, and other sectors of the population (Rueter's, 1998). In addition, its brutal military repression all but guaranteed its lack of success, and the group was opposed by grass-roots organizations. Finally, the vertical nature of the party structure led to international isolation. The group was doomed."

Tags:Alberto, Fujimori, Oscar, Ramirez, Durand, Abimael, Guzman