Abstract This paper compares views on nonreductive materialism and substance dualism and looks at problems the philosophical theory of nonreductive materialism encounters with relation to causation. It also examines concepts of neurophysiological processes in the brain.
From the Paper "This essay will explain the philosophical theory known as nonreductive materialism. It will then identify the problems that this theory encounters with respect to causation and then given its ..."
Abstract This paper is an in-depth academic examination of the philosophy of dualism. It defines dualism and describes the important arguments in support of it through the concepts of Descartes, Chalmer and Jackson. The paper debates the existence of qualia. The author presents a decisive argument against dualism and in support of physicalism.
Table of Contents:
What is Dualism?
A Cartesian Argument for Dualism Jackson's Knowledge Argument for Dualism Chalmers? Zombie Argument for Dualism Arguing against Dualism: Why it is a False Theory of the Mind
References
From the Paper "Dualism is a philosophical theory about the fundamental nature of reality. Perhaps the most important and best known proponent of the view was Descartes who described it as follows: ?Thought and extension can be regarded as constituting the natures of intelligent substance and corporal substance; they must then be considered as nothing else but thinking substance itself and extended substance itself that is, as mind and body.? [CSM I p. 215]. Influenced by Descartes characterization, contemporary philosophers take Dualism to be the conjunction of the following two theses:
(1) There are mental properties and there are physical properties.
(2) Neither kind of property can be reduced to the other. "
Abstract The paper explains the concept of dualism, which holds that every human being is divided into two parts in which the mind and the body are considered as different from each other. The paper discusses how the body belongs to the physical element while the mind belongs to the intellectual element. The paper points out that any material substance is defined as physical; materialism includes all things that exist. The paper looks at Rene Descartes' theory of dualism and examines the arguments of Paul Churchland against dualism. The paper demonstrates how the arguments of Churchland regarding dualism are quite doubtful and very unclear.
Outline:
Concept of Dualism Concept of Materialism
Rene Descartes' Theory of Dualism Paul Churchland's Argument Against Dualism
From the Paper "During the 17th century Rene Descartes was the famous dualists philosopher because of his belief that there are two substances that exists in the universe. His particular philosophy is referred to as substance dualism because he believed that the universe consisted of two different kinds of substances that he termed res extensa (extended things, physical things) and res cogitans (thinking things) (Cofer, 2002). He believed that every action of the body, the mind only responds on the body's actions. The set of thinking things does not exist in space and time as we know it, but are separate, irreducible and exist after the body is completely gone (Cofer, 2002)."
Abstract This paper concerns the philosophy of the mind and attempts to answer the question of whether dualism provides an acceptable account of the mind. In doing so, the fundamental arguments and problems associated with dualism are discussed and analyzed. This paper assesses the plausibility of a number of different forms of dualism such as Descarte's cartesian dualism, property dualism and epiphenomenalism.
From the Paper "For centuries, philosophers have debated the ontological problem of the mind. Through introspection, we know that we, and believe others possess a conscious intelligence that has the ability to register emotions, interpret sensations and perform reason. But where do such abilities originate? In what medium do they take place and how is it that our mental phenomena such as desires and beliefs seem to be able to causally act on the physical world? Dualism is just one of many theories that have sought to find answers to such intriguing questions. Unlike materialist theories that optimistically asserts that all mental phenomena can eventually be explained through physics and neurological science, dualists argue that mental phenomena is so far removed from anything physical that it requires the existence of a non-physical entity or property. Since, as yet science is unable to fully explain all mental phenomena such as consciousness, perhaps dualism is a plausible alternative. Is any form of dualism plausible?"
Abstract This paper looks at the theories of dualism as espoused by philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato, Descartes, and Kant, and explains how the various branches of dualism differ. The paper begins with a description of substance dualism, explains how it differs from monisms, pluralisms, and a dialectic, and then explains metaphysical dualism and epistemological dualism.
From the Paper "Dualism is a view that implies that there are two separate and distinct substances that make up a human being: mind and body. In religious terms, the mind is often equated with the soul - with Plato and Aristotle, for instance, where the Greek term nous is used to describe the part of the individual that survives death."
Abstract The paper discusses Rene Descartes' belief about the dualism of mind and body in which Descartes states that the mind and body can exist and function independently from each other.. The writer of the paper first looks at Descartes' four categories of explanations for his body-mind dualism arguments and then explains why he believes that, regardless of the multitude of forces brought in favor of the body - mind dualism, one cannot correctly state that body and mind can function on their own.
Outline:
Abstract
Dualism of Mind and Body
Support of Mind - Body Dualism Personal Belief
Conclusions
From the Paper "Rene Descartes is regarded as one of the greatest minds humanity has ever mastered. Born in France, he became specialized in several subjects, such as theology, philosophy, literature, mathematics, law or medicine. A firm sustainer of the sciences, Descartes believed that everything surrounding him could be explained as a combination of mathematics and another subject. "Descartes, who was convinced that science and mathematics could be used to explain everything in nature, was the first to describe the physical universe in terms of matter and motion, seeing the universe a as giant mathematically designed engine." "
Abstract This paper discusses the concept of dualism, which is any philosophical system that attempts to explain 'everything' in terms of two distinct principles. The paper discusses how dualism relates to religion today in the United States, according to William DuBay. The paper then discusses the psychological theories of dualism, in terms of the mind and the body and also discusses dualism in terms of human behavior.
From the Paper "Dualism, which allowed Descartes to distinguish mechanical behavior from behavior generated by free will, thus resolving the conflict between the materialist interests and religious concerns of his era, continues to underpin scientific accounts of human action (Chiesa). Although psychology generally subscribes to the idea that individuals comprise behavior and something else, and dissects the individual along the lines of intention, beliefs, and perception, radical behaviorism dispensed with dualism, and starts "from a different view of persons in that it does not separate them into behavior and some other internal system" (Chiesa). Thus the individual is the sum of what they do, and are defined in terms of their behavior, with no other entity. Because radical behaviorism does not assume that behavior counts as evidence of something else, the individual is a unity rather than a duality, "an interactive part of its environment rather than a contained and separate entity" (Chiesa). Therefore, the individual operates in rather on an environment, and because a person is what he does, behavior takes primary place (Chiesa)."
Abstract This paper defines monotheism as the general religious belief in one God, which is prevalent with most religions including Christianity, Islam and Judaism. This paper also delves into the philosophy of dualism which states that the universe is comprised of two specific substances. This paper presented as a comparative analysis details and examines the differences between the two philosophies. This paper clearly shows that monotheism does in fact possess some of the characteristics of the dualist philosophy yet dualism does not have even one characteristic similar to that of monotheism. The writer contends and proves in this paper that dualism decidedly emerged from the basic principles of monotheism.
From the Paper "The idea of an infinite and united God is consistent with the argument presented in the preceding paragraph. Time does not play a significant role in determining God's efficacy to its believers. Furthermore, mind and matter merge to create a united entity, a characteristic achieved only by God. And because God transcends all the worldly ideas and concepts that humanity has created, God is then considered simple, mainly because it is not spiritual or material, it simply exists as it is. This fact alone explains God's simplicity, though to explain its existence and knowability is actually a complex contemplation to engage in. Lastly, because God is infinite, united, and simple, he is thus divine: an entity that exists for different causes not known by humanity."
Abstract Dualism is the theory that the mind and the body (mind and matter) are two distinct things. This paper examines the theory as set forth by philosopher Rene Descartes in his work "Meditations on First Philosophy" in which he discusses what has come to be called the Cartesian dualism - that the mind and body are separate and that the mind is incorporeal.
From the Paper "Inherent in Descartes's argument is the mind-body problem and the need to understand what is the mind and what is the body as well as how they are connected and related. The mind is our awareness, the one thing that we can know is real. It is the site of rational thought. It is subject to the senses in that it acquires information through the senses, but it is not a sense in itself. Descartes says he had no doubts as to the nature of "body," though now he has had to reconsider this position given that he realizes all the elements of the body are known to him only through the senses that he does not trust any longer. He says if he had been asked to explain the nature of the body, he would have explained that it was whatever could be determined by a certain shape, and comprised in a certain location, whatever fills a certain space so as to exclude from it every other body, whatever can be apprehended by the senses, and whatever can be moved in certain ways. In truth, he is identifying the body through various characteristics perceived by the senses and in no way identifying the body itself. The mind is his awareness and his reality, but the body may be an illusion sent to deceive him. Here he shows an intuitive understanding of duality, for the mind is trusted for what it develops through reason even as the senses are linked with the physical body that is in effect fooling the mind."
Abstract This paper looks at Descartes's approach to dualism, how he based his idea on what Augustine wrote in his work, "City of God", and considers how the advances made in the life sciences has caused modern society to revisit the concept of dualism.
From the Paper "As a philosophy used to understand the composition / nature of mankind, Cartesian Dualism had its origin's with Rene Descartes. Descartes approached the subject of mankind's unique identity by wrestling with logical arguments that were intended to answer metaphysical problems. His writings expanded the limited religious framework of his day, as he attempted to understand the nature of mankind as dual, both body and soul, through means that were not attached to an individual creed. His work has long been looked to as the basis for understanding the unique position which mankind holds in the universe (Charles Darwin, please take notice.)"
Abstract This paper describes the epistemological and ontological characteristics of Cartesian dualism. It gives a detailed outline of Descartes's view of the mind/body relationship and explains why the contemporary view of the mind/body relationship is strikingly different from what Descartes's interactionist dualism suggests. The paper begins with Descartes's statements in his "Meditations" and expresses the problems that he faced afterwards.
From the Paper "Substance dualism holds that reality consists of two disparate parts - mental and physical - which are deeply different in kind. Descartes' mind/matter distinction, most accurately called the Cartesian interactionist dualism, is a particular kind of substance dualism in which the "mental" mind and the "physical" body can causally interact. Descartes (1596-1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician and psychologist, who is often considered to be the founder of the modern discipline of philosophy. He lays down the foundations of his interactionist dualist theory in his "Meditations on First Philosophy"."
Abstract Examines the debate over dualism in philosophy and psychology. Plato's doctrine of ideal form. Aristotle's concept of the actual & the potential. Ideas of Acquinas, Descartes, Kant. Freud's theory of human experience & behavior; his dream theory. Theories of Jung, Adler, Nagel & Churchland. Psychopharmocology & affect of drugs on mind-body split.
From the Paper "This research examines the mind-body dualism split in the history of psychology. The research will review the philosophical background of dualism and then discuss how the legacy of philosophical dualism informed the emergence of psychological theory and its application in practice over the course of the 20th century.
What must be appreciated about the debate over dualism in psychology and philosophy is that in each of these disciplines, most answers are either partial or always subject to further debate, not only on account of conceptually creative theory but also on account of the accumulation of an increasing body of new, scientifically verifiable knowledge and information about how body and mind function. The dualism debate arose in the ancient period, not solely between Plato and Aristotle but in part..."
Abstract This paper begins by stating the argument Descartes gives for a version of mind/body dualism. It then considers two objections to Descartes? argument and finally assesses the validity of Descartes? argument in light of those objections.
From the Paper "Much of the intellectual history of psychology as well as philosophy has involved the attempt to come to grips with a dilemma of mind and body. This dilemma was eventually broken into main two opposing views: one view (dualism) proposes that our universe contains two very different and equally fundamental types of entity: mental/spiritual and physical/material items. Most followers of this view hold that human mind (or soul) is to survive the annihilation of the body. The contrasting view, materialism, on the other hand, affirms that everything in our universe is composed of mass-energy, minds and bodies included."
Abstract This paper argues that the Beowulf poet develops an intricacy in his poem that is unusual to Old English literature. It considers the nature of evil in the poem and also the notion of transience commonplace to Old English poetry. It looks at how "Beowulf" is unusual in that it predates ? by about a millennium ? present conceptions of evil and how a modern reader might draw parallels between Grendel and Osama Bin Laden, for example. It examines how the poem is fashioned by its propensity for dwelling on the continuum that exists between good and evil, and subsequently by its use of dualistic modes of interpretation: the finite as against the infinite, the human in opposition to the non-human. It also contends that Beowulf presents a mode of dualism that is ever present in human thinking and that the poem dramatises subtle behaviour in its subversion of this dualism.
From the Paper "That Beowulf is so fundamental to ? and in fact determines ? what is a particularly momentous conundrum impresses upon the reader the total importance of his character in the poem. His death is not the end of a poem, but the potential demise of a nation. It is poignant, and cyclical, that, as Swanton puts it: ?Just as no man knew what became of Scyld Scefing, neither did they know ? nor do we know ? what became of Beowulf's Geats; they both just drift out of history? . It is fitting that Scyld's funeral should overshadow, or contain, Beowulf?s; it is Scyld's infinite death that moderates Beowulf's finite life. It is perhaps, then, the death of Beowulf that breaks the cyclical hold of Scyld in the poem."
Abstract This paper states that "identity theory" claims that each and every type of mental state corresponds directly to a physical state or occurrence within the brain; but "token identity" theory does not say that the tokens share any physical properties. The author declares that the theory of dualism claims that each mental token is entirely non-physical despite the fact that it appears to be connected to the body. The paper concludes that "identity theory" and materialism are more probable than "dualism".
From the Paper "Now that the two opposing theories of identity theory and dualism have been defined, the various arguments for the theories can be examined. To begin with I will argue for identity theory, using an argument concerning our physical origins and evolutionary history. When a human being is conceived as a fertilized ovum, it begins life as a genetically programmed single-celled collection of molecules. The further it develops, the more molecules are added and the larger it becomes; as the cells divide over and over, the structure and amalgamation of each molecule that is added is controlled by information present in the DNA in the cell nucleus."
