Abstract
The paper relates that dopamine is a biogenic amine, catecholamine (an amine derived from the amino acid tyrosine, hormone and neurotransmitter) that plays a critical role in the CNS (Central Nervous System) to manage and/or organize emotion, cardiovascular, hormonal, renal, locomotion and cognitive processes. The paper discusses how dopamine was discovered by two great scientists: Arvid Carlsson and Nils-Ake Hillarp at a Heart Laboratory in Sweden, and shows how dopamine is synthesized in the hypothalamus of the brain as this controls every endocrine gland in the body.

From the Paper
"Dopamine is a biogenic amine, catecholamine (an amine derived from the amino acid tyrosine, hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a critical role in the CNS (Central Nervous System) to manage and/or organize emotion, cardiovascular, hormonal, renal, locomotion and cognitive processes). Dopamine was discovered by two great scientists: Arvid Carlsson and Nils-Ake Hillarp at a Heart Laboratory in Sweden. Arvid Carlsson won a Pulitzer Prize for his discovery. Dopamine is synthesized in the hypothalamus of the brain as this controls every endocrine gland in the body. Many changes occur in the neurotransmitter levels of the brain,..."

Tags:dopamine, sleep, neurotransmitters

Abstract
This paper discusses the role dopamine plays in pleasure and motivation, thinking, schizophrenia, psychosis and Parkinson's Disease, all of which are related to insufficient or overabundance of dopamine in the brain. L-Dopa and its role in crossing the blood-brain barrier is also briefly mentioned.

From the Paper
"Dopamine is a chemical compound found in the brains of all humans, produced naturally by the body. It is a neurotransmitter produced by the hypothalamus and plays a major role in several important physiological and psychological aspects of human development. Dopamine has at least five different receptors and four major pathways through the brain, all of which indicate different functions in the body (Blum; "Dopamine"). This paper will look at some of those functions and roles that dopamine plays, and discuss some of the more important aspects in psychological development and pathology. One of the more recently understood roles of dopamine is that it plays an important role in the creation of desire and motivation, the wanting something or wanting to do something, not just sexual desire, although it does affect that as well. "

Tags:dopamine, effects, brain

Abstract
This paper examines one particular chemical, dopamine, to determine its role in the regulation of mood, as well as its effects in cases of chemical imbalance. This paper is intended to provide a scientific look at the molecule. Several scientific tests are examined and cited. The author, in examining dopamine, also covers a wide variety of related topics, including alcohol and drug addiction.

From the Paper
" Feeling well is important to everyone. Countless books, lectures, and small groups exist only to help people feel good about themselves. The state of happiness is controlled by many different factors, some that are external to an individual, and some that are internal. External factors would be any of those that occur outside of the individual, such as career related stress, status of relationships, and even the realization of some goal or accomplishment. Internally, or biologically, there are also many things that influence happiness and well-being. These biological factors can respond to external stimuli, or in the case of chemical imbalances, have configurations that are not controlled by any stimuli, but seem to act on their own. "

Tags:analyze, biology, chemistry, dopamine, medical, neurotransmitter, science, test

Abstract
The paper looks at the dopamine hypothesis and the newer hypotheses for the cause of the disorder, and also the mechanism of action of the drugs.

From the Paper
"The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia was a theory which argued that the cause of the disorder could be fully explained by changes in the function of dopamine in the brain. The theory was that over activity of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway could induce the positive symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions and problems with the function of dopamine in that pathway may cause the negative symptoms such as the flat emotional response and alogia seen in some patients. Evidence in support of this theory came from the..."

Tags:dopamine, schizophrenia, serotonin

Abstract
The paper analyzes dopamine's chemical application and explains the neurochemistry aspects of the brain. The paper looks at recent drugs that act upon dopamine receptors to inhibit sleep and examines their cost and effectiveness.

Outline:
Role of Dopamine in Human Sleep/Wake Cycle
Chemical Application of Dopamine
Recent Drugs that Act upon Dopamine Receptors to Inhibit Seep
Cost and Effectiveness

From the Paper
"Dopamine is a biogenic amine, catecholamine (an amine derived from the amino acid tyrosine, hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a critical role in the CNS (Central Nervous System) to manage and/or organize emotion, cardiovascular, hormonal, renal, locomotion and cognitive processes. Dopamine was discovered by two great scientists: Arvid Carlsson and Nils-Ake Hillarp at a Heart Laboratory in Sweden. Arvid Carlsson won a Pulitzer Prize for his discovery. Dopamine is synthesized in the hypothalamus of the brain as this controls every endocrine gland in the body. Many changes occur in the neurotransmitter levels of the brain, which evolves wake/sleep cycles."

Tags:neurochemistry, neurotransmitter, receptors

Abstract
This paper reviews and discusses a report by Bruce G. Mockett on research that focused on some key issues of the problem of the dopamine system. The paper describes the purpose of the research, theoretical assumptions underlying the research, the methods used in the research, the main findings of the research and its contributions.

From the Paper
"As it is well known catecholamines play an important role in the regulation of the vital functions. Understanding the mechanisms of the neuromodulation is a crucial point for the modern psychopharmacology, behavioral sciences, neurophysiology. One of the most urgent questions is clarification of the cellular mechanisms of the principal mental functions: memory, cognition and emotions. Explanations for multiple receptors with similar ligand specificity include subtype-specific differences in distribution or developmental expression (Lezcano N., Bergson C., 2002). Thus, dopamine transmission is mediated by G-protein-coupled receptors. They mark them out into five groups: D1-like (D1 and D5 subtypes) and D2-like (D2-D4 subtypes). The D1 subtype is the most prevalent dopamine receptor in brain. Recent researches gave evidence that the D1-like receptors take part in modulating motor, cognitive and reward behavior is well established. There is evidence that D1-like receptors can modulate various forms of synaptic plasticity, including long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), in the various cerebral structures including neocortex, hippocampus and striatum."

Tags:d1/d5R, agonists, on, ca1, field, excitatory, post-synaptic, potentials, recorded, slices, incubation, conditions

Abstract
A brief look at several hypotheses regarding schizophrenia origination and manifestation with special attention to the original dopamine hypothesis, serotonin hypothesis, and emerging role of glutamate as a schizophrenia aggravator.

From the Paper
"Solomon Snyder first formulated the original hypothesis that is the notion that there is a direct and causal relationship between dopamine (DA) overactivity in the brain and the psychopathic symptoms of schizophrenia. (Labrovic) This hypothesis came about via four empirical studies linking schizophrenia and DA brain levels. The first practical study found that administering amphetamines in high doses to non-schizophrenic subjects resulted in psychotic behavior to that normally exhibited by diagnosed schizophrenics, the..."

Tags:schizophrenia, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, symptoms

Abstract
The paper looks at the anatomical origins of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline and their associated pathways, as well as the basic anatomy of the limbic system and its associated structures. The essay then goes on to explain that our brain is structured such that certain environmental stimuli can cause us to have positive or negative reinforcing experiences based on how our neurochemicals react in response to the situation. The reward pathways in our brain help to determine much of our everyday behavior, whether it may be the urge to eat, the drive to have sex or the addiction associated with mind-altering drugs. As such, we must receive appropriate stimulation and positive reward in order to function as individuals and be happy, or we are at risk of a reward deficiency resulting in negative emotions such as sadness or depression. There is also a discussion of how addictive behavior can be due to positive reward systems which have a very strong influence on the way we act.

From the Paper
"Happiness and sadness are two primary human emotions, and whilst more often than not caused as a result of external stimuli, they are largely determined by neurobiological processes that occur in the brain namely that of biogenic amine reward pathways. We have to stimulate these pathways adequately every day if we are to function well mentally, physically and emotionally. The experience of emotion is integral to who we are as humans. Darwin (1872 in Ekman, 1973) defined emotion as essential to the welfare of group-living species. Without emotion, we would be unable to be attracted to one another, reproduce, or interact socially, amongst other things. Emotions also have distinct motivational properties (Izard, 1971) and understandably, the reward system and its close association with pleasure plays a large part in determining our actions. "Pleasure is unquestionably a key factor in controlling the motivated behaviors of humans." (Kandel et. al., 2000 p.1007) Emotions are known to lead to specific behavioral patterns that determine the way in which we live our lives and influence the experience of consequent emotions, for example, happiness or sadness."

Tags:addiction, antidepressants, dopaminergic, hippocampus

From the Paper
" Definitional Criteria and Symptoms
According to the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV, 1994), a diagnosis of schizophrenia may be given if patients meet the following criteria:
A. At least two of the following symptoms lasting for at least one month in the active phase (exception: only one symptom if it involves bizarre delusions or if hallucinations involve a running commentary on the person or two or more voices talking with each other):
1. Delusions
2. Hallucinations
3. Disorganized speech (incoherent or frequent derailment)... "

Tags:DISORDERS

Abstract
This paper explains that it is important to recognize how the more known and dangerous drugs influence neurochemistry. For example, heroin increases the release of dopamine by increasing the firing of dopamine neurons. The postsynaptic neuronal receptors are then inundated to levels far higher than normal; therefore, heroin usage is associated with the feelings of mood elevation and euphoria. The author points out that drug and alcohol metabolites, which are residual substances of drugs that remain during the drug and alcohol metabolism that takes place in the liver, are implicated in problems during withdrawal, remission, and craving. The paper recommends that treatment modalities should include pharmacotherapeutic as well as psychological and emotional support structures, including family involvement and 12-step programs such as AA (Alcoholics Anonymous), NA (Narcotics Anonymous) and CA (Cocaine Anonymous).

From the Paper
"From the above therefore, a new motivational perspective of drug abuse emerges. It can be classified as two fold: extreme motivational strength and extreme motivational toxicity. Motivational strength is associated with the extent to which addiction can replace other basic motivations such as food, sex and the need to maintain a career. Motivational strength is also associated with to what lengths an addict will go to procure drugs. The psychosocial ramifications (as mentioned above) are a consequence of motivational strength. Motivational toxicity, on the other hand, can be defined by how it can be disruptive. Cocaine affects the user differently than heroin and methamphetamines. Typically, addiction can be towards anything. Most people are addicted to mild sedatives, cigarettes (though some aver that it is more addictive than cocaine), coffee, shopping, chocolate and gambling. Any of these addictions can be measured based on motivational strength and motivational toxicity."

Tags:dopamine, tolerance, metabolites, motivational, twelve-step