Abstract
In this paper, an overview is provided of knowledge acquisition as it relates to expert systems. After this, specific knowledge acquisition methodologies and techniques are reviewed that have been used in the development of knowledge-based systems. Subsequently, information is provided on recent advances in knowledge acquisition. Finally, future trends based on recent developments are discussed.

Overview of Knowledge Acquisition
First Generation Knowledge Acquisition Methodological Approaches
Second Generation Knowledge Acquisition Methodological Approaches
Knowledge Acquisition Techniques by Interaction with the Expert
Interviewing
Case Study
Protocol Analysis
Critiquing
Role Playing
Simulation
Prototyping
Rapid Application Development and Joint Application Development
Teachback
Observation
Goal Related
List Related
Construct Elicitation
Sorting
Laddering
20 Questions
Document Analysis
Recent Developments in Knowledge Acquisition
Future Directions
References

From the Paper
"Knowledge acquisition represents a field of artificial intelligence focused on the development of methods, techniques and tools for building expert system knowledge bases. During the 1970s and 1980s, most researchers and practitioners believed that knowledge should be acquired via a process involving a knowledge engineer, who interviews a domain expert regarding the knowledge domain of interest. The knowledge engineer was then responsible for organizing and formalizing the extracted knowledge to the point that it was appropriate for processing by a knowledge-based system. After processing was completed, the extracted knowledge could then be tested by presenting example problems to the knowledge-based system."

Tags:information, domain, technology

Abstract
The writer states that in order to understand the comparatively new concept, we must first understand what this means. The writer explains that the term 'Cynefin' tells us that all our interactions are based on our previous experiences and these experiences come from two origins - some are directly experienced by the individual while others are experiences that the individual hears about and believes. This article looks at the concept of Cynefin and its uses and research. It discusses research at the Cynefin Centre and Cynefin as a method to categorize domains as order, and to understand complex situations and chaos within an organization.

From the Paper
"The center of all the action in this matter is now at the Cynefin Centre. This is an international network to focus on the application of this complex science for management and organizational practice. The Centre was earlier a part of IBM but separated in July 2004. The center is housed within a network of academic institutions. Established in 2002, Cynefin was the first such management research centre in Europe. Then there was an agreement between Cardiff University and IBM to enable the world-class Cynefin Centre for Organizational Complexity to be based at Cardiff Business School. This was not a permanent arrangement and the centre was to move to the University later in the year, and Mr. Snowden was to continue as director. The centre offered an opportunity to address many of the major business and social issues that directly affected the future of Wales. (Cardiff Business School and IBM establish world-class management centre at Cardiff University) Dave Snowden is the founder and Director of the Centre. Christian Hauck is also a member of the Centre, and that gives it a link with Novartis. (Welcome: The Cynefin Centre) This is the present position of the Cynefin concept in the world."

Tags:habitat, culture, identities, management

Abstract
Through a review of ten articles, this paper looks at the importance of building up "domain knowledge" and prominently features the findings of a National Reading Panel study conducted some years ago that argues (among other things) that vocabulary building, phonemic awareness exercises, systematic phonics instruction, and in-service upgrades for teachers all positively correlate to student achievement.

Table of Contents:
Abstract
Article Summaries
Article Summary One: Teaching children to read
Article Summary Two: The Nature of Effective First-Grade Literacy Instruction
Article Summary Three: The Utility of Phonic Generalizations in the Primary Grades
Article Summary Four: Reading Comprehension Requires Knowledge - of Words and the World
Article Summary Five: What Reading Does for the Mind
Summary Six: The Case for Bringing Content into the Language Arts Block and for a Knowledge-Rich Curriculum Core for all Children
Summary Seven: Teaching Decoding
Summary Eight: One Down and 80,000 to Go
Summary Nine: Teaching Vocabulary: Early, Direct, and Sequential
Summary Ten: Findings and Determinations of the National Reading Panel by Topic Areas

From the Paper
"Theodore Clymer (1963) reports that five types of generalizations have historically been utilized (at least if teacher's manuals are any indication) in teaching children to pronounce words: vowels, consonants, endings, syllabication, and miscellaneous relationships. Eventually, Clymer came up with a list of 45 generalizations or rules for study. These were arrived at by asking whether or not a candidate generalization was sufficiently specific that it could be said to actually assist (or hinder) in the pronunciation of a particular word. Clymer then made up a composite word list of all the words introduced in the four basic series from which the generalizations were drawn - plus words from the Gates Reading Vocabulary for the Primary Grades. On pages 186 and 187 of the study, Clymer outlines the basic approach undertaken to assess the efficacy of the 45 phonic generalizations; this step-by-step approach is rather complicated and cannot be easily described in the space we are allotted. Nonetheless, the study found that many commonplace phonics generalizations are of limited worth; in particular, vowel generalizations are especially unreliable while consonant generalizations are a little better. One thing that complicates Clymer's study is that his success rate for an effective phonics generalization (75 percent or above) is quite high - as he himself acknowledges.

Tags:phonemic, domain knowledge, vocabulary building, phonics in-service

Abstract
This paper discusses how it is almost impossible in today's age to trust any form of research implicitly. However, it is part of human nature to gather information as a form of research, connect it with our preexisting ideals, thoughts, and memories, and then form beliefs based on this new perception or "knowledge". There are, however, some forms of research that are generally considered more "true" or reasonable than others. It contends that although the Internet is becoming increasingly acceptable as a research domain, users must be intelligent and skeptical when deciding upon the reliability of Internet research.

Outline
Abstract
Introduction: The Belief Engine
Units of Belief
Belief and Research
Research on the Internet
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The Internet is also a forum where bad research can be particularly harmful because a number of Internet "hoaxsters" deliberately plant wrong information which can appear quite respectable or even scientific at first glance. Many websites post hoaxes about famous people, politics, productions or organizations - sometimes in the sake of satire or humour, but other times simply to be misleading. There are also a number of "mirror websites" designed to deceive users into believing they have accessed a real, reputable site; the "mirror" site design can be so believable that many users have trouble determining its fakeness (Internet Detective, 2006). The Internet also publishes a lot of urban legends (incorrect stories or rumours that are presented as truth), scams, frauds, and Hate sites that perpetuate malicious, untrue information about an organization, person, religion, or political viewpoint (ibid). "

Tags:knowledge, memory, information

Abstract
This paper explains that, at Goodyear, a worker can be trained for the task within the organization if the worker has the skill set required; the only criteria is that the worker needs to be sufficiently motivated to learn the tasks being taught. The author points out that, often, in the technology and engineering domain, the expert knowledge of the trainer is very important, and "people-skills" are considered secondary. The paper stresses that knowing the limits of improvements that training can have on a work force is important to avoid training programs that are expensive and do not generate the intended results for the worker.

From the Paper
"Organizational learning and understanding the power bases for future success of the company is very important. The employees will have to understand the importance of multiple skill development and the need to understand the impact of a decision on other aspects of the business. Understanding the financials goals of the company and the need for planning and scheduling is important in a worker-empowered organization. In a lean and JIT operational system understanding the relevance of the supply chain and the value addition at every point will be stressed. Employees within Goodyear will be taught to identify these critical features."

Tags:skill, motivation, technology, knowledge, limitations

Abstract
The paper relates that Jean Piaget and Benjamin Bloom are two of the most influential educational psychologists of the twentieth century. The paper looks at how Piaget described four distinct stages in cognitive development and how Bloom codified or outlined 6 specific types of cognitive skills ranging from simple knowledge to the abstract analysis. The paper shows how together, these psychologists outlined the main ideas behind constructivist learning theory.

From the Paper
"Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is best known for his observation that children learn qualitatively differently from adults and his theory that they pass through four distinctive stages in their intellectual development as they mature. This theory led to an understanding that children learn differently than adults and that there should be a developmental basis for how and what we teach children at various ages (Plucker). Benjamin Bloom (1903-1999) is best known for "Bloom's Taxonomy" which codified a hierarchy of thinking skills ranging from factual knowledge through comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation."

Tags:taxonomy, domains, cognitive

Abstract
This essay discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the scientific method. It begins with an overview of what the scientific method is or entails. It explains what induction is and why it is democratic in nature, i.e. it allows knowledge to be open to the public domain where theories can be refuted and improved on. It explains how scientific theories follow the rules of parsimony (Ockham's razor), and why this provides an edge to scientific theories over other forms of knowledge as far as practical application is concerned. The main drawback of scientific knowledge is said to be the lure of objectivity, where scientists regularly mistake their theories to be representing absolute truth. It is further argued that this attitude gives rise to dogmatism, resulting in the suppression of other forms of knowledge, and that this is a severe loss. The arguments of Popper and Feyerabend are presented in this regard.

From the Paper
"The fruits of the scientific revolution are all around us, therefore there is much to be said about the benefits of the scientific method upon which it is based. But the scientific method is also a lure, so that scientists frequently mistake their theories to represent absolute truth. An examination of the philosophy of science points out that the scientists claim regarding truth in scientific statements is untenable. Even so, scientific enquiry is distinct from other forms of enquiry, and it is helpful to spell out this distinction with the help of the philosophy of science.
"The scientific method relies on induction. This is where the empirical observation of the physical world leads towards the construction of theories. This means that a semantic relationship is found between physical entities, and such a relationship is said to explain the physical phenomenon. The explanation does not derive logically from the observation. Though the scientist uses mathematics and deductive logic at various stages of the process, the initial step of induction is rather the result of inspiration."

Tags:empiricism, objectivity, theory, hypothesis, experiment, deduction, Francis Bacon, mathematical rigor

Abstract
This paper focuses on the recent questions and theories that have emerged on how learning theories affect individual personalities. The paper explains that conventional learning theories comprise the fundamental theories of knowledge and behavioral change; however, with the onset of new technology and new understandings of the complexities of the human brain, there has been an eclectic approach to the study of learning personalities that has led to new suppositions and conclusion. The paper goes on to clarify that within the domain of study of most learning personality theories are two major assumptions - stability of the individual personality and individual differences in people. The paper explores the learning theories of B.F. Skinner, Albert Bandura, and Julian Rotter, comparing and contrasting the tenets of their beliefs. The paper concludes with the assumptions that the individual is a reflection of his or her learning history, and that a person is the total sum of a wide range of life experiences that, when combined with social interaction, makes the individual who he or she is.

Outline:
How Learning Theories Affect Individual Personalities
Interpersonal Relationships
Behavioral Learning Theories
Social Cognitive Theory
Cognitive Social Learning Theory
How Learning Theories Conceptualize Situational Behaviors
References

From the Paper
"Learning personality theories have become complex and diverse over the last few decades. Conventional learning theories comprise the fundamental theories of knowledge and behavioral change; however, with the onset of new technology and new understandings of the complexities of the human brain there has been an eclectic approach to the study of learning personalities that has lead to new suppositions and conclusions. Until recently, learning personality theories were constructed around and focused on the notion that learning and changes in behavior had to be observable. Contemporary suppositions and theories question earlier assumptions that one must perform or behave in a particular manner for learning to have occurred. More precise questions and theories have emerged that as

Abstract
This paper argues that in her novel, "Mary Barton", Elizabeth Gaskell is trying to offer knowledge as a solution in reducing class tensions and in giving the rich and the poor a better understanding of each other. The paper uses female characters and their roles in the public domain as a medium for demonstrating this.

From the Paper
"City life in the 19th century ushered in a difficult and conflicted era for women. Torn between the necessity of remaining in the domestic sphere for the sake of the maintenance of a comfortable family life for all, and the new, frequently arising necessity of entering the public sphere, women of lower classes became obligated to undertake the double burden of balancing traditional roles and roles in the workplace and other public venues. Staying home and entering the public domain both offered many consequences, and left women's practical options unclear, and also created an ever-greater rift between their ways of life, and those of wealthier women, who typically remained entirely in the domestic sphere. Elizabeth Gaskell's 1848 novel, Mary Barton, displays the intricacies of a variety of female lives, rich and poor, public and private, under extremely trying and class-dividing circumstances, those of the Industrial Revolution. Gaskell tends to represent women as actively engaging in public urban life out of necessity rather than out of any personal desire to do so, and she uses the idea of balance as an important issue which also relates to class tensions. Mary Barton's message to women is that they must cautiously advance into the public domain, but not neglect the ill effects and the dangers of such a move, and rather be aware of the positive and negative aspects of life in the private and public spheres. This awareness of both sides of an issue is additionally reflected in Gaskell's compromise-centered views on class tensions and reconciliation, which is to do what one must for one's own station in life, but to remain aware of the effects on others of different classes, and to find a balanced "happy medium" in one's actions."

Tags:industrial, 1848, Esther, Jane, Wilson, Carson

Abstract
An in-depth look at Plato's "Euthyphro" and the type of communication that exists.The author reveals the ideas about piety and argues that many lessons are taught in a way that is not necessarily dialectic and are rather left for the reader to conclude.

From the paper:

"Plato, in Euthyphro, both understood and utilized this concept in crafting dialogue. In Euthyphro, Euthyphro, a theologian, explicitly defines piety four times. Socrates disproves him each time and adjures him to provide a superior definition. Yet Euthyphro eventually tires of discourse and exits still proud of his knowledge even after retreating from every definitional position. With a cursory read, the reader is left to conclude that Euthyphro is ignorant of piety. However, Plato's pedagogical intent was not to indict a historical figure. Rather, Socrates, though refuting Euthyphro's statements, leaves other potential responses untouched. In turning to this unassailed domain of ideas, a clear theme emerges: Plato intentionally leaves thoughts implicit for the student's benefit."

Tags:euthyprho, gods, greek, piety, plato, platonic, socrates