Abstract This paper discusses use of DNA as crime scene evidence. Science has added a weapon to the crime lab's arsenal. From a drop of blood, strands of hair, or other biological material left at the crime scene, scientists can provide a much better "fingerprint", namely DNA.
Abstract This essay will explore the risks of DNA research and genetic cloning in the context of Michael Crichton's book "Jurassic Park". While this paper will recognize the benefits of DNA testing, its main argument will be that, while Crichton's book is somewhat exaggerated and unrealistic, the basic warning is legitimate: that there is a certain point where man's creation can hurt humanity itself.
Abstract This paper relates that scientists have deciphered every last one of the 3 billion DNA "letters" in the human body. The author points out that the completed DNA sequence is now expected to give scientists understandings about the workings of the human body that have never been made before. The paper stresses that this development will revolutionize medicine and biology.
Abstract This paper discusses how the courts have sent innocent people to prison as well as sentencing innocent people to death row. Most people would want the courts to use evidence that can correctly punish the guilty and set free those who are innocent. The paper further discusses how DNA evidence works to link the guilty with the crime they commit and it allows the innocent to go free. DNA as evidence is vital in making the right decisions about crime.
From the Paper "Imagine sending an innocent person to prison on charges that he or she did not commit, yet the courts have convicted and sentenced innocent people to death row. "There is no way to tell how many of the over 1,000 people executed since 1976 may also have been innocent" (Additional Innocence Information). The courts have sent innocent people to prison as well as sentencing innocent people to death row. "What if there was a way of typing a person to the scene of a crime beyond the shadow of doubt. Or, more importantly, what if you could rule out suspects and prevent the wrong person from being locked up in jail" (Meeker-O-Connell). "
Abstract This paper answers questions relating to DNA templates and the differences between the structure, function, and the treatment of viruses and bacteria. The paper also explains the necessity for making a template in the replication process.
From the Paper "The DNA has to be replicated so that after cell division each new cell will contain the full amount of DNA material. After replication every new cell will contain one strand of the original DNA plus one strand of the newly synthesized DNA. The original strand acts as template to guide the next process which is the synthesis of a..."
Abstract Modern ecological pressures are very different from those faced by early Homo Sapiens and other early hominids. Changes have taken place in DNA structures sometimes relating to our environment and our sociological issues. In the paper the author examines issues related to these changes and the results in Homo Sapiens and Homo Neanderthalensis.
From the Paper "Our four micro evolutionary forces; mutations, gene flow, genetic drift and natural selection have far different results in modern man and in fact the move from natural selection to self-domestication is changing man into some kind of pseudo robot form and the environment into a kind of pseudo self supporting bionomic. From hospitals who save the rare mutation that may have succumbed in nature, from importing and exporting to favor those with the 'wrong' genes in the 'wrong' area regarding gene flow, from the highly mobile human and his ability to intermingle with anyone around the world regarding genetic drift and back again to the doctors who save those that may succumb to natural selection; we have annihilated our four micro evolutionary forces into oblivion."
Abstract This paper discusses how DNA analysis is carried out and its importance in certain circumstances. It particularly deals with the trauma of 9/11 and explains the advantages that DNA had over other identification methods in such a scenario. The author has included references to several studies that have been carried out as well as a diagram depicting human chromosomes and other tables of interest.
Outline:
Introduction
The aftermath of the terrorist attack on the Twin Towers
How important is DNA evidence in this case?
Will everyone get identified?
Restrictions on how DNA evidence can be used
Fragment sizes
Decomposing DNA How does the analysis get proper resource and funding?
DNA management
Source of DNA samples
Using Identification Number on the site
Storing into the database
How DNA analysis (methods) can be utilized in making identification
DNA Extraction
DNA amplification and analysis (PCR)
Mitochondrial DNA Single nucleotide polymorphism
Short Tandem Repeat analysis
Identifying victims
Probability ratio in linking to the victims
Linking victims using relatives and family member's DNA Limitation of modern technology
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "The deaths of thousands of innocent people can traumatize an entire nation, and this was the case on September 11, 2001 when terrorists attacked the World Trade Center and Pentagon. According to Gonzalez, Schofield and Schmitt (2006), "On September 11, 2001, 2,792 people were killed in terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center (WTC) in New York City. The number of victims, the condition of their remains, and the duration of the recovery effort made the identification of the victims the most difficult ever undertaken by the forensic community in this country" (p. 3). The use of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as a means of providing virtually positive identification of victims of mass disasters is of fairly recent origin having been introduced about 50 years ago, but the impetus is on to use these techniques for a wider range of forensic applications. For example, during the 1990s, a number of states began to develop DNA identification programs, and in 1993, the FBI implemented CODIS, a national program designed to (a) support federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies in their creation of a population statistical database; (b) improve DNA forensic analysis methods; and (c) to serve humanitarian purposes such as the identification of missing persons or the human remains from mass disasters (Lyon, 2002). The FBI in particular favored the development of the CODIS application based on its "productivity and efficiency," but former director of the FBI crime laboratory John Hicks described the computer databank as "nothing more than an information management and screening tool" (Hoeffel, 1990, p. 527). The former director also indicated, though, that he expected that the initiative would ". . . save time and effort, and courts will have fewer cases to process because investigations can be better focused and coordinated" (FBI, 1991, p. 37). The CODIS application links the DNA profiles of convicts gathered by scattered state law enforcement DNA labs, encourages uniform standards, and pools DNA data to facilitate identification of criminals across borders (Lyon, 2002). The thirteen DNA sites used in the CODIS database are illustrated in Figure 1 below."
Abstract This paper discusses, in some detail, the way in which DNA is used for forensic purposes. The paper discusses DNA typing functions, its historical use in forensics and prosecution, the possible mistakes which may be made or encouraged by DNA typing, and the future of DNA in criminal and civic cases.
What is Forensics?
How DNA is Collected
How DNA is Read
Problems With DNA Problems With DNA
From the Paper "The forensic use of DNA has become widely accepted in America today as providing error-proof evidence for criminal cases. Many convictions are made on the strength of DNA evidence alone, and some fewer number of accused "criminals" have been cleared of all charges on the account of late-discovered DNA evidence. Depending entirely on one's perspective, DNA sequencing may be either a godsend or one of the most serious threats to an objective justice system to have surfaced in a hundred years. On the one hand, DNA evidence can accurately link a suspect to physical evidence left at the murder scene with a striking accuracy, with the probability for error being only one in five million when considered a (genetically) average suspect and an average gene pool."
Abstract This paper explains that DNA evidence exists in biological materials, such as blood, semen and even perspiration and can be found on a variety of items from cigarette butts to eyeglasses, even decades old evidence can contain DNA. The author points out that one of the biggest disadvantages of DNA testing is, if it is not performed correctly, the results are worthless. The paper relates that in the field, DNA fingerprinting is one of the investigator's forensic tools but its use requires full training in the process for collecting DNA evidence.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Overview of DNA Fingerprinting
Advantages of DNA Fingerprinting
Disadvantages of DNA Fingerprinting
What I Would do as an Investigator in this Field and Why I Would Choose DNA Fingerprinting
From the Paper "Lastly, Smialek, Word, and Westveer note a primary disadvantage of DNA fingerprinting is the ease in which it's contaminated. Samples have to be collected and handled with gloves that have to be changed often. Disposable instruments, or those that are thoroughly cleansed can only be used. Even talking, sneezing or coughing over evidence can make it worthless. In addition, there is the backlog of DNA samples to be processed which lead to lengthy waits between collecting and interpretation."
Abstract This paper describes DNA fingerprinting, which is a useful technique that was first used by health officials to detect genetic disease, but is now also playing a significant role in court cases. The writer explains that each person has their own unique set of DNA and the chance of someone having the same DNA is about one in a million. The writer then describes the six basic steps involved in carrying out DNA fingerprinting in a laboratory. The first use of DNA evidence in a court case in 1987 in Britain, when it brought a conviction for rape and homicide, is also described. Once its usefulness in identifying a person's guilt or innocence was realized, a program was set up in the U.S. for collecting DNA from all convicted criminals, and a database was established in 1994 called the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS). Other uses of DNA fingerprinting are also summarized.
From the Paper "DNA predetermines characteristics of living organisms. Half of a person's makeup comes from each parent. DNA resembles a staircase that is zipped up by two stands that alternate containing the nucleotides Adenine which pairs with Thymine and Cytosine which pairs with Guanine. These are the basic building blocks that make up DNA and have a backbone that consists of sugars and phosphates that are joined together by ester bonds. Each strand of DNA is linked and codes into various amino acids that are used by the body such as Alanine or Glycine. Organisms all have different physical and chemical characteristics because of the variance of their DNA sequences."
Abstract This paper explains that, when the finger prints are obtained and can be fitted into the part of the narration and other circumstantial evidence, the role of DNA mapping becomes secondary. The paper points out that the science of fingerprinting and analysis has evolved to almost a perfect method; whereas, the science of DNA analytics as applied to forensics is still evolving. The paper also relates that DNA evidence is accepted in courts; however, the general view of the courts is to rely on other evidence wherever available even to the extent of ignoring the DNA evidence.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Issues in Forensic Science
Finger Prints and DNA: A Comparison
The Problems and Future of DNA Testing
Legal views of DNA Conclusion
From the Paper "We have to understand that the DNA study is recent and fingerprint analysis is centuries old. The legal system adopted fingerprinting and thereby subjected all citizens to it two centuries ago. In 1985 the DNA or genetic fingerprinting was used. The system was developed by Prof. Alec Jeffrys and subsequent to its recognition the courts have recognized it as direct evidence. Fingerprinting was made official with the penal servitude act far back in 1891 which provided for the fingerprinting of convicts and by the direction of a magistrate for those in remand."
Tags: unique, infallibility, time, classification, court
Abstract This paper explains that the introduction of DNA evidence has become the cornerstone of many forms of criminal investigations especially for sexual assault and murder. Nonetheless, DNA evidence still has its drawbacks. The author provides a basic understanding of DNA and the ways DNA is used as evidence at crime scenes. The paper points out the issue of privacy, the need for collaboration even when DNA associated with the accused is found, and the difficulty of explaining the complicated DNA procedures to a jury. The paper stresses that the use of DNA is most significant in the area of exonerating previously convicted individuals who were sentenced based on inaccurate eyewitness testimony or other faults of the investigation process.
From the Paper "One of the controversial advancements that has come along with the use of DNA evidence is the development of DNA databases, which store the DNA of convicted criminals from previous cases. It is very similar to the fingerprint databases that exist, only these databases store the electronic print out of a person's DNA. The controversy occurs over the desire of some political groups to include all humans in these databases and not simply criminals. Additionally, some even object to the database at all, regardless of who's DNA it contains, as they believe it is an invasion of privacy."
Abstract The paper offers a brief background and overview of DNA testing and focuses on the perspective that DNA tests should be implemented to all death row inmates to lead to a more just and legal outcome. The paper discusses documented cases that have shown the efficacy and necessity of DNA testing but then looks at the arguments against DNA testing, focusing on the central argument that it can impinge on privacy rights. The paper argues that the case for DNA testing of death row inmates has far more ethical and moral weight than any opposing arguments.
Outline:
Introduction
Brief Background and Overview
The Argument Against DNA Testing
The Case for DNA Testing
Conclusion
From the Paper "The view that DNA testing should be applied to all those convicted on crimes that result in a death row sentence is one that has been vigorously debated and contested. The view that supports DNA tests for those on death row is a perspective that is difficult to fault. Simply stated, the core reasoning that supports this view is that DNA testing can prevent unnecessary deaths in cases of those who have been unjustly convicted of crimes. "Stories about innocent individuals convicted of crimes while the actual perpetrators remain at large are becoming increasingly common in U.S. newspapers, magazines, and broadcast outlets." (Weinberg 76) "
Abstract This research is an investigation into the way DNA technology has affected America's criminal justice system by detailing its uses, as well as the challenges that still lay ahead. Utilizing secondary resources, including the testimonies of several experts in the field such as the director of the Virginia Division of Forensic Science, the executive director of the National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence and the assistant director for the Laboratory Division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, as well as published resources from other experts, the author of the paper attempts to answer the question of how DNA has impacted America's criminal justice system.
Preface Statement
Statement of the Problem
Background
Overview of DNA DNA as an Investigative Tool
Inception of the National DNA Index
Literature Review
Research Methodology
Anticipated Results and Conclusions
From the Paper "DNA is organized as two complementary strands that are linked together with bonds that can be separated. Each strand of DNA is a chemically linked chain of nucleotides, which are made up of a sugar, a phosphate and one of four kinds of nucleobases, often simply referred to as bases. These bases are: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine, abbreviated as A, T, C, and G. Furthermore, these bases only pair up properly with one other base, A with T, C with G, and vice versa, on their complementary strand ("DNA")."
Abstract This paper argues that DNA testing should be available to prisoners on death row who maintain their innocence. This argument is based on three principles. The first point discussed is a scientific argument that DNA testing is one of the most reliable crime solving tactics available today. The second point is an economic argument, since state-funded DNA tests ultimately costs the taxpayers less than the appeals process and the costs of housing an innocent prisoner. Finally, the most important argument for DNA testing is moral. The writer states that making DNA tests available for prisoners would further the judicial process not only by helping convict the guilty, but also by exonerating the innocent.
From the Paper "The use of DNA in solving crimes has become widely accepted. DNA is now routinely presented in courts as evidence. DNA evidence had helped to identify crime victims and has helped put criminals behind bars.
However, DNA evidence is also becoming valuable in another aspect of the judicial system. Increasingly, DNA testing is helping lawyers in defending innocent clients. In many cases, DNA tests have proven the innocence of many prisoners who have been in jail for years. This includes prisoners who would otherwise have been executed."
