Abstract This paper is a summary and comment on an article by Aronson called "The Rationalizing Animal", concerning Feistinger's theory of cognitive dissonance, how dissonance develops, how dissonance is resolved through rationalization, the lengths to which the individual will go to resolve dissonance It also discusses how dissonance is involved in the operation of conscience.
From the Paper "Aronson (1973) examines the concept of rationalization from the point of view of a psychologist examining human behavior and why people believe things that make little sense, suggesting that they may be rationalizing in order to reconcile different ideas they may hold at the same time. The author refers to the theory of cognitive dissonance offered by Feistinger in 1957, a theory that describes and predicts such rationalizing behavior. We receive messages from our surroundings all the time that may challenge our assumptions, our beliefs, or our behaviors, and we may continue behaviors that counter these messages even if we believe the message as well. Aronson notes that the more the individual is committed to a course of action, the more he or she will resist any information that threatens to change that course. This creates cognitive dissonance, and the individual will seek to reduce that dissonance through rationalization."
Abstract This is a three-page paper on cognitive dissonance. A person who can handle one situation well, but not another tends to experience discomfort from cognitive dissonance. The paper explores How this can affect others in business or at the workplace.
Abstract This study examines the effects of cognitive dissonance on tobacco users whose aim is to quit smoking. Hypothesized predictions were generated from cognitive dissonance theory, which suggests that creation of dissonance may contribute to the likelihood that users will attempt to quit smoking and will successfully do so. The writer maintains that the results of the preliminary literature review suggest that cognitive dissonance is most likely to occur in tobacco users when the user has to choose between beliefs and actions that are not compatible. The exact nature of cognitive dissonance to tobacco use is examined in this research article.
Contents:
Introduction
Literature Review
The Nature of Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Selective Exposure and Post Decision Dissonance Theories of Minimal Justification
Reducing Cognitive Dissonance
From the Paper "Cognitive dissonance theory can be used to describe the discrepancy users feel between what they know to be true regarding tobacco use and their interpretation or the relative weight they give to this information. Cognitive dissonance suggests that while many users may acknowledge reports from the Surgeon General that tobacco use leads to death or cancer, they may reinterpret this information in a more positive light to reduce the conflict that results from acknowledging they are voluntarily engaging in a habit that is not health promoting. Cognitive dissonance however may also lead to enough discomfort or dissonance in the user to encourage more users to quit permanently, not on the basis of reward but rather to alleviate the dissonance occurring between their attitudes, beliefs and behaviors. Dissonance is more likely to be evident in users who acknowledge that tobacco use is bad for them, yet continue to purchase and smoke to assuage their cravings for nicotine."
Abstract A detailed explanation of the cognitive dissonance theory. The author examines how humans make decisions according to this theory and provides a definition, explanation and example of how the cognitive dissonance theory functions in everyday life.
From the Paper "Cognitive Dissonance Theory, developed by Leon Festinger, is concerned with the relationships among cognitions. Cognition, for the purpose of this theory, may be thought of as piece of knowledge. The knowledge may be about an attitude, an emotion, a behavior, a value, and so on. Cognitive Dissonance is how do human beings make decisions. What triggers a person to take action at any given point? These are some of the questions that will be answered with explanation of Cognitive Dissonance, as well as many of other related theories covered in Myers Social Psychology."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that marketers need to understand the role of involvement and habit, information processing and the concept of life values in consumer behavior, as well as cultural determinants. The behavioral sciences such as sociology and psychology are paramount in achieving this goal. The writer points out that consumers' demand for an exciting variety of new products puts ceaseless strain on companies to constantly try to understand consumer behavior. The writer explains that marketing products thus becomes pointless if the marketers are unaware of the consumers' needs and wants. The writer maintains that without the knowledge of the varying areas of behavioral sciences it would be difficult for marketers to identify the characteristics of their consumers and they would be unable to achieve maximum sales and product potential.
Outline:
Introduction
Elements of the Decision-Making Process
Example of Cognitive Dissonance Characteristics and Effects of Cognitive Dissonance How to Use Process to Drive Buyer's Actions
Customer Satisfaction and Purchasing Behavior
Expectation Disconfirmation Theory
Conclusion
From the Paper "There are five elements of consumer behavior that lead to a purchasing decision. The first element is problem recognition; the consumer comprehends a need, difference between a perfect and a genuine situation. The situation can be as simple as seeing there is no bread left. Second information search, the consumer is looking for value. This is where clarification of options is revealed to the consumer and many involve internal and external search. Next is assessment of other possibilities. What standards will be used and what is the perceived value in making the purchasing decision. Fourth is the decision to purchase. This involves when, to buy, who to buy from, or if to buy at all. When to buy will come from influences like store atmosphere, time, is there a sale happening, and the shopping experience. Who to buy from will depend on the terms of the sale, past experience with the seller, and the return policy. If all the factors do not fit what the consumer is looking for the consumer may and will chose not to buy. Fifth is post-purchase behavior. Once the consumer makes the decision to purchase, he or she will compare the likelihood the buying decision meant expectations, this will leave the buyer either satisfied or dissatisfied."
Abstract This paper reflects on three types of dissonance, including mental, literary and conflict, to define and describe the actions of the characters in Shakespeare's "Macbeth".
Discusses the social psychological theory of cognitive dissonance. Identifies choice, insufficient justification, effort justification and contradictory information as the four primary causes of dissonance.
675 words (approx. 2.7 pages), 1 source, 1997, $ 23.95
From the Paper "Cognitive theory studies how people understand the world around them and how this cognition aids their efforts for successful adaptation to the surrounding environment. A prevailing assumption is that cognition affects behavior. Certain theories hold that this progression is also influenced by motivations. Motivation is viewed as a "moving force which instigates behavior and is primarily a function of thought rather than needs, drives, or arousal" (Reeve, 1997, 160). There are many suppositions as to what these forces are. One such theory holds that dissonance can be a primary motivator for a person's actions.
Dissonance is the discomfort in psychological and physiological states caused when an inconsistency is created between a person's beliefs and his or her behaviors. Dissonance ..."
Examines the impact of confusing medial and cultural messages about drinking, the role of cognitive dissonance, incidence, economic aspects and sexuality.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 7 sources, 1999, $ 39.95
Abstract Cognitive dissonance is a theory put forth by Festinger and others which derives from the view that "when our behavior does not reflect our beliefs we will experience dissonance: a conflict between our intellect and our actions" (Huber and Wien 25).
From the Paper "Cognitive dissonance is a theory put forth by Festinger and others which derives from the view that "when our behavior does not reflect our beliefs we will experience dissonance: a conflict between our intellect and our actions" (Huber and Wien 25). We receive messages from our surroundings all the time which may challenge our assumptions, our beliefs, or our behaviors, and we may continue behaviors which counter these messages even if we believe the message as well. Young people are assaulted with media images, messages from peers, messages from teachers, and messages from parents and other adults which the behavior of these young people may go against, creating cognitive dissonance as they learn one lesson and act out another at the same time. We can see this in certain behaviors which young people know are bad for them but in which they may indulge in any case, such as ..."
Abstract This paper studies the theory of cognitive dissonance and how philosophers and psychologists have used the theory in an attempt to understand different psychological states and problems. Fear of death, a universal emotion, is cited as an example of cognitive dissonance often studied by philosophers and psychologists. The paper continues with a discussion of the different religious, social, and philosophical manifestations of this fear and their application to society.
From the Paper "Cognitive Dissonance: Human psychology has always been a subject of great interest to philosophers down the ages. From the time of Aristotle and Socrates, there has been exhaustive focus and study on human behavioral patterns and the motivations that underlie it. Ancient and current philosophers continue to expand their understanding of human psychology in an attempt to understand the issues and conflicts that prevent human kind from actualizing a professed philosophy. It is in this context that the theory of cognitive dissonance assumes importance."
Abstract This paper explains that the travel and tourism industry, one of the largest global industries, has experienced continuing growth in spite of terrorism which has hammered the aviation industry but not the travel and tourism industry. The author points out that that the factors associated with the emergence and promotion of travel and tourism are based on increased productivity, the psychological mobility typically associated with broadened horizons, and improvements in transportation and communications facilities. The paper stresses that the gap theories, such as dissonance and importance-performance that seek to explain how tourists first experience certain expectations concerning their travels and then relate these expectations to the reality of their experiences, may provide researchers with the most valuable insights into how and why people will seek out a destination in the first place and why they will either return there or not.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Review and Analysis
Background and Overview
Expectancy Disconfirmation Paradigm (EDP)
Comparison Theory
Value-Precept Theory
Importance-Performance
Equity Theory
The Dissonance Theory
Contrast Theory
Conclusion
From the Paper "The reasons people travel are as limitless as the number of people involved, but there is a sufficient amount of commonality in their behaviors and rationale to develop some generalities concerning recreation behaviors. The explosive growth of tourism after World War II has clearly been dramatic; this growth has been largely the result of higher discretionary incomes, smaller family size, changing demographics, lower transportation costs, improved public health standards, infrastructure development, and until recently, more hospitable environments for tourists in many destinations, especially long-distance travel and tourism. There is also a clear "build it and they will come" quality to travel and tourism; before the advent of modern transportation systems, only the truly hearty and fearless might seek to explore new horizons in foreign countries. Today, though, things are much different, of course, and virtually any destination in the world in only a few hours away by air."
Abstract This paper reviews the four general theories of communication: system, cognitive dissonance, symbolic convergence and Burke's dramatism. The paper presents the history and evolution on each theory and then provides a real-life example of the theory's application. Outline: System Theory Cognitive Dissonance Symbolic Convergence Burke's Dramatism
From the Paper "General theories are universal explanations which account for broad classes of events. General theories are similar to theories developed in the natural and physical sciences. General theories attempt to provide accounts of human communication behavior based upon generalized regularities. Thus, general theories may be applicable and relevant to many different groups and cultures, across many times. A general theory has as much usefulness in predicting and/or explaining the communication of an American as it does an Australian. As general theories are not time bound, the propositions which undergrid the theory might be as true today, or fifty years from now, as they were fifty or one hundred years ago."
Abstract This essay provides an overview of psychologist Leon Festinger's work on the flexibility of the boundaries of attitude and action and how these limits are affected by changing outside stimuli and influence. The paper describes one of Festinger's experiments and explains his notion of cognitive dissonance, the condition that results when the balance between attitude and action is contradicted. The paper also shows Festinger's contribution to methods of psychological study, and how his theories have subsequently been expanded.
From the Paper "A task that an individual perceives to be distasteful is often seen as a result of an outside influence or stimuli that results in the formation of this individual's perception, or attitude, toward this task. This attitude reflects an individual's belief, which in turn reflects the set of personal values that form the framework of that individual's self-awareness and esteem. Since personal behavior is directly driven by personal attitude or belief, one could arrive at the conclusion that the individual behavior is a result of a balance between personal attitude and action. What would occur within this fragile framework of self-balance, however, should one's individual belief or attitude come into direct conflict with one's individual actions?"
Abstract The paper discusses how consumers of all goods and services frequently experience what is known as cognitive dissonance, or post-purchase anxiety. The paper analyzes how this is especially prevalent with purchases, such as cellular phone agreements, that require the consumer to buy into a contract of some duration. The writer proposes that the fact that the Disney Mobile phone involves the buyer's children, and is marketed on the basis of improving child safety, only increases the consumer's perceived stakes in the act of consumption, and raises the risk that the buyer may feel more potential anxiety after getting the phone. The paper includes a marketing strategy to counteract this anxiety.
From the Paper "Simplifying the decision making process at this stage is also a positive goal, because remorse in the post-purchase process tends to be greater if the consumer is exposed to many different options. Stressing the uniqueness of the Disney phone because of its parental screening devices and added entertainment components is an excellent strategy to help the likely target parental consumers feel better about their purchase. This will make them less apt long for another type of cell phone, or worse, to wish that they never bought a cell phone for their children at all. The superiority and uniqueness of the brand must be conveyed during the early decision-making process. Reducing later cognitive conflict in the pre-purchase stage is of vital importance because early apprehensions the greatest source of dissonance post- purchase."
Abstract The paper explains why theory is important and then formulates three universal laws derived from common communication theories. The paper discusses how people will communicate most often with those whom they share basic values, that the things which mean the most to us and which comprise the most intimate aspects of our self-conception are often the things which we reveal last and that men and women truly are different and that allowances must be made for this fact. The paper shows how if these universal laws are followed, many characteristics of human interaction will become more understandable.
From the Paper "The first "truth" which will be put forward by this writer is the universal law that human beings communicate predominantly with those whose values and beliefs coincide with their own. Not to be overlooked, the "flip-side" of this theory is that people will act evasively or communicate in almost defensive manner when compelled to interact with those with whom they disagree. This law is derived from the concept of "selective exposure" which is a sub-component of the broad theory of cognitive dissonance (both items will be discussed in greater detail shortly). Moving right along, the second universal law put forward by this writer is that the manner by which people communicate will become more defensive the closer any conversation or exchange comes to their most deeply-held fantasies or fears. Simply stated, this law is derived from the "onion" metaphor colorfully described by Altman and Taylor and it is part of the sometimes under-appreciated Social Penetration theory that offers a fascinating glimpse into how human beings reveal aspects of themselves. Finally, the last universal law is that men and women really do communicate differently and process information differently - and this explains why so many relationships fall apart despite the best efforts. This insight is gleaned from the Genderlect theory of communication advanced by Deborah Tannen and it goes a very long way towards explaining why so much tension between men and women exists in contemporary western society."
Abstract This paper examines the film "American Beauty", about problems in interpersonal communication among several characters and how the husband and wife in the film in particular suffer because of their failure to communicate effectively with one another. The paper also shows many of the pressures on the family that exist today and the ways in which those pressures increase problems in interpersonal communication. It discusses how the application of social psychology in this situation could be used to identify the sources of cognitive dissonance and to develop ways of bringing the nature of this dissonance to the awareness of the couple so they could alter their behavior, shift their expectations and find ways to accommodate one another through better communication.
From the Paper "The primary problem for both husband and wife is that they have discovered that there is a significant gap between the expectations society has given them in their socialization process and the reality encountered in life. Both husband and wife experience a form of cognitive dissonance, which occurs when our behavior or situation does not reflect our beliefs, causing us to experience dissonance, or a conflict between our intellect and our actions. Both husband and wife have lived with certain expectations,a nd both find that the life they are living does not meet these expectations. This is not surprising. We receive messages from our surroundings all the time which may challenge our assumptions, our beliefs, or our behaviors, and we may continue behaviors which counter these messages even if we believe the message as well."
Tags: husband, wife, daughter, family, relationship, society, communication
