Abstract
In this article, the writer compares and contrasts the terms disparity and discrimination as they relate to the criminal justice system. The writer contends that disparity is a more significant problem because of inequities within society.

From the Paper
"The argument has been advanced that while discrimination does exist in limited areas of the criminal justice system a perhaps more significant problem is that of disparity those inequities or differences that exist with respect to individuals and groups who enjoy less advantaged positions within society. In defining discrimination the Michigan Law Review reference was made to the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment that provides that no person or class of persons shall be denied the same protection ..."

Tags:disparity, discrimination, social class, society, laws

Abstract
This paper looks at racial disparity in sentencing, which finds that there is discrimination against Blacks and Hispanics in sentencing in criminal courts. In many cases, the Hispanics receive longer sentences, particularly if the crime involves drugs. There is an 8-page paper and a 2-page outline.

From the Paper
"In federal courts it has been found that ethnicity has a small to moderate effect on sentencing outcomes, with Hispanics being sentenced most harshly followed by Blacks and then Whites. (Steffensmeier and Demuth) Hispanics receive particularly harsher sentenced for drug offenses. A study of the Pennsylvania Commission on Sentencing showed that different courtroom participants contribute to racial and ethnic disparities under sentencing guidelines and there is differential exercise of discretion by different participants in the courtroom process which contribute to sentencing disparities."

Tags:racial disparity, sentencing, discretion, guidelines, Blacks, Hispanics

Abstract
This paper compares statistics from the United States and Canada in terms of income disparity and age, showing how the elderly earn less and may be retired so that they are dependent on pensions and government payments to live,. The paper analyzes how the retirement system in Canada is better shaped to maintain a level for the elderly than is the Social Security system in the United States.

From the Paper
"Income inequality has been examined from a number of perspectives, noting the wide disparity between the income of the richest and the poorest, between people in different jobs, between genders, between different racial groups, and on the basis of age. Many such inequalities are evidence of unfair distribution, while that for age suggests certain characteristics of working life as the cause. An examination of the age disparities in the United States and Canada show why this is so and also suggest some differences between the two countries. Income disparities exist within age groups and have more to do with unfair distribution caused by such other factors as race and gender, along with expected differences on the basis of education."

Tags:income, disparity, age

Abstract
This paper analyzes and discusses disparity and discrimination in the criminal justice system, from policing, arrests, charging, prosecuting, sentencing and imposing prison terms. In particular, it looks at how Blacks and Latinos experience discrimination. According to the paper this is most apparent in the so-called "war on drugs."

From the Paper
Introduction A major cause of disparity and discrimination in the criminal justicesystem in this country has been brought about by the war on drugs as caneasily be seen by examining arrest rates prosecutions convictions andsentencing handed out to Whites as compared to Blacks Hispanics andNative Americans Race One quarter of all Black males and percent of Latino males can expect to spend time in prison during theirlifetime but only four percent of White males ever go to prison Youth African-Americans comprise almost

Tags:disparity, discrimination, race, war on drugs, arrests, prison terms

Abstract
In this article, the writer demonstrates through the literature reviewed that racial disparity in sentencing in today's courtrooms is a very real issue that must necessarily be proactively addressed especially since one in every 15 black men in America is incarcerated compared to one out of every one hundred white men. The writer discusses that racial disparity in sentencing is present in every aspect of today's judicial system and is so integrally interwoven into the system that the very structure of the sentencing phase of a case must be changed fundamentally if racial disparity in sentencing is to be eliminated. The writer maintains that this will clearly take a focused effort of criminal defense attorneys, the judicial system at all levels, prosecutors, and laws and legislation relating to sentencing and sentencing guidelines. The writer concludes that the elimination of racial disparity in sentencing will not be possible unless that elimination is intentional and proactive as well as fundamental, which will require the focused efforts of all stakeholders and participants in the judicial process of sentencing.

Outline:
Introduction
Racial Disparity in Sentencing confirmed by Research
Why Racial Disparity in Sentencing Exists
What Can Be Done to Correct Racial Disparity in Sentencing
Discussion

From the Paper
"Steps that are suggested by The Sentencing Project as those which the Judiciary can take is one of a leadership role in attempting to assure that minority defendants are not treated disparately at the time of their arrest or during the bail and release decisions as well as in the assignment of a defense attorney and in decisions regarding diversion. Finally, Judiciary should assure that racial disparity does not take place during the time of the plea negotiation process as well as in court docket management and at sentencing. Additionally, The Sentencing Project states that the court can work toward elimination of racial disparity in sentencing through institution training ..."

Tags:courtrooms, race, black, discrimination

Abstract
This paper explains that sociologists and politicians have become extremely worried about the growth in international and national income disparity especially in developing countries, which is considered to be the cause of political strife. The author stresses that calculating the level of income disparity in developed or under-developed societies is not easy; two different studies of one particular country, at the exact same time, can come to two different conclusions. The paper proposes a comparative analysis of the various structures and theories of income disparity measurements being utilized by the third world countries, which are comprehensive enough to accurately evaluate income disparities with all independent variable, such as color, gender, rural/urban, economical system and occupation. Tables and graphs.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Research Questions
General Questions
Specific Questions
Background of the Study
The Histories Context of Income Disparity:
Literature Review
A Brief Overview of the Income Disparity Measurement Methods Being Used
Critical Analysis of these Measurement Methods
Problems with the Use of these Methods within Countries
Ideas about the Gaps that Exist
What is Wrong with the Present Methods being Used?
Theoretical Framework
Summary of the Theoretical Framework
Hypothesis
General Questions
Specific Questions
Research Design
Operationalization Variables
Data Collected
Analysis Plan
Causal Diagram (Ordinary Least Squares Regression)
Conclusion
Table: World Population and Total poverty
Table: Education Spending in relation to the Total GDP and Total Expenditure of the Governments
Table: The Percentage of Income Sharing between the Richest and the Poorest
Table: Gender Related Income Distribution
Table: Occupation and Unemployment Rates

From the Paper
"A substitute structure of measurement frequently employed by the third world has been the use of per capita GNP facts and figures (GNP/c), however, the consideration of purchasing power parity (PPP) has been made and changes have been made accordingly. The changes made in this system compare the local prices of products, merchandise and services of that particular country with the international prices of the same commodities. By utilizing the identical comparative prices for each and every product and services, the researchers evaluated the income measurements that had been changed for purchasing power parity (PPP). The results of the measurements model that considers the purchasing power parity (PPP) and changes the GNP/c accordingly is different from the model that disregards the changes."

Tags:gnp, standard, causal, repercussions, structural

Abstract
This paper relates that there is evidence indicating a disparity between the sentencing of white and black individuals in the United States. The paper discusses the many reasons that exist for such a disparity, such as law enforcement strategies that target low income areas. It also discusses other reasons, including the ability to hire a private attorney versus having to depend on a public defender. The paper concludes with some suggestions for reducing racial disparity.

Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Reasons for Racial Disparity
Extra Legal and Non-Legal Factors in Sentencing Consideration
Suggestions for Reducing Disparity
Conclusion

From the Paper
"A large racial discrepancy exists in the court system when sentences are handed down to individuals. There is sufficient evidence to support that a black individual is more likely to receive a harsher sentence than a white individual who committed what would appear to be the same crime. Many theories exist for the explanations of the racial disparity such as law enforcement strategies, disproportionate number of minorities involved in crime, the implementation of mandatory sentencing guidelines, and even how plea bargains are handled. As well as there are theories for the reasons why racial disparities in sentencing existing, so are suggestions as to how to attempt to remedy it such as restricting judicial discretion, and maintaining sentencing within certain guidelines."

Tags:enforcement, bargaining, attorney

Abstract
This paper discusses the differences between disparities and discrimination within the court systems and criminal justice system as a whole. The paper defines the differences between discrimination and disparity and gives examples of how they have been used in the past in the United States. It particularly focuses on areas of race, women and juvenile justice.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Discrimination v. Disparity: Definitions
Examples of Discrimination and Disparity
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The juvenile justice area of criminal justice is another area where disparities are seen. In an adult court, preferential treatment may be given to those who have jobs in terms of how they are sentenced. (Rivera, 2006). However, the goal of sentencing in juvenile justice is geared more toward rehabilitation rather than retribution. Therefore, the opposite case may be seen here in terms of how a juvenile maybe sentenced. By this what I mean is, let's say that two juveniles have committed the exact same crime except one juvenile has a stay at home parent and the other one has a single parent who is working one or more jobs. The juvenile with the stay at home parent maybe allowed to go home because the parent has stated and demonstrated that they have the ability to monitor the juvenile. The juvenile with the working parent may not be afforded the same option because of the fact that he or she is in fact working and does not have the same ability to monitor the juvenile."

Tags:courts, enforcement, minorities

Abstract
This paper claims that the rate of incarceration in the United States exhibits extreme racial disparity. The paper contends that the effects of racial disparity in incarceration reach much farther than the effects inside the social and economic structure of the prisons themselves and this disparity is likely to continue to feed itself through the societal effects to the whole population.

From the Paper
"It has been clear for decades that the rate of incarceration in the United States exhibits extreme racial disparity. There are significantly more African Americans in the prison system than there are in the general population in fact, almost 50% of those incarcerated at any given time are black men and yet the U.S. population is comprised of only 12% African Americans. (Clear & Cole 2002, Chapter 19) Cole and Clear give three main explanations for this disparity, differential criminality among minorities, racist criminal justice system and lastly a racist general population. (Clear & Cole 2002, Chapter 19) Within all three of these arguments there is some limited validity, yet it is also clear that there is still problem in need of serious address. Racial disparity within prison and corrections in general is the most serious issue facing the corrections industry today. "

Tags:segregation, racism, criminal

Abstract
The paper begins with a synopsis of the state of general education in the country, and then turns to the social beliefs and the traditional roles between women and men that are responsible for this disparity. It explores primary, senior and higher education.

From the Paper
"Papua New Guinea is located in the South Pacific. The island is rich in resources and has been called "an island of gold awash in a sea of oil" (Schaper). The natural resources haven't been exploited because of the expense associated with building a modern infrastructure along with the area's naturally rough terrain. So, with all of its natural wealth, the island has failed to develop economically. Around 37 percent of the population are living in poverty (Papua New Guinea). Due to gender disparities in education, only half of the nation is educated with an opportunity to obtain high-paying jobs."

Tags:synopsis, general, social, belief, traditional, role, gender, women, men, primary, senior, higher