Abstract This paper examines the issue of gender and racial discrimination in sport both at college as well as professional level. It attempts to dispel the myths regarding women equality and meritocracy in sports, such that women earn through professional as well as college sports as much as their male counterparts. It examines the struggles involving women recognition in sports through the history of basketball which evolved in 1891 but only allowed women players in 1971 and the differences in women participation in college sports and professional sports. The paper also outlines the racial desegregation of college and professional sports, bringing out the similarities and the differences to that of gender bias.
From the Paper "Though women face various challenges in the name of discrimination in sports oriented activities and career advancements, women in college sports face less resistance due to the fact that at college level, friendships and relationships are more sound and meaningful than at a professional level where shrewd politics dominate the sports scenario and extreme resistance is faced by women who are professional athletes. Moreover, in college sports, due to combined activities, women get more or less the same facilities and coaching aid that their male friends receive. Alternately, women athletes on a professional level are struggling hard to receive better or equal facilities than men athletes."
Abstract This paper explores the reasons why inequality between men and women still exists in the sports arena and emphasizes that while female teams have come a long way since the Title IX amendment was put into effect, femalesports teams still cannot and do not create the money that a big time football program can. The paper asserts that women's sports and athletes will lag behind until they can draw in the same kind of financial numbers as their male counterparts. The writer includes a detailed outline of the paper.
From the Paper "There are many forms of discrimination. Throughout the ages people have suffered and continue to suffer prejudices against them for reasons such as their race, ethnic group, religion, age and gender. Gender issues are more prevalent than ever, especially in an era where feminism and gender equality are constant topics of contention and debate. When it comes to career autonomy and even sports, there is still a glass ceiling that cannot always be overcome by women in particular. Often women are subjected to "boys clubs" where they have to work above and beyond the capabilities of their male counterparts just to sustain a high management position. Women are constantly challenged in the work place and in sports and despite their best efforts, still must deal with sexual harassment and incomparable pay."
Abstract This paper explores the frequently argued case that in the interest of equality between genders that males and females should have the opportunity to compete in sporting events by playing on the same teams. The paper puts forth the argument that this is an unfair practice, as males and females are physiologically dissimilar and males would have the advantage and thus females would be excluded.
From the Paper "It is frequently argued that in the interest of equality between genders that males and females should have the opportunity to compete in sporting events by playing on the same teams (Costa and Guthrie, 6-8). Several female athletes have recently brought this issue to the general public; Mia Hamm, for example, has been referred to as one of the best athletes in the history of the world and was able to outperform her male counterparts in many ways. This suggests that males and females do have the basis for equality within sports, and the opportunity should be provided to allow competition between evenly-matched athletes, regardless of gender."
Abstract Scholars researching the mass media have argued that the media is both the producer as well as the product of social inequality. As even the briefest review of the magazine rack of any bookstore in Canada would reveal, the dominant imagery in the mass media - or at least the print mass media - is that of young, beautiful females. Sport magazines (e.g., Sports Illustrated, Shape, Women's Fitness) are no exception to this rule. This paper argues the thesis that the representation of women and female athletes in our society reinforces sexism through a calculated representation of the aesthetics of the female body as the sole attribute of value of women in our culture.
Abstract In this article the writer points out that when the anti-discriminatory legislative amendment known as Title XI was passed in 1972, many Americans laughed at the idea of women participating in competitive sports at all, much less femalesports competing for an equal level of spectator attention and funding at institutions of higher learning. This paper looks at the legacy of Title XI, as today, powerful and positive images of femalesports stars such as Venus Williams adorn the covers of magazines, and women everywhere run in marathons, take their daughters to soccer leagues or participate in such leagues themselves, and simply enjoy the delights of hard, physical competitive effort. The writer argues that Title IX must continue to mandate equal funding as without equal funding it will be too easy for colleges and high schools to go back to the old traditions of supporting male sports disproportionately, in comparison to supporting female activities.
From the Paper "Encouraging women to participate in athletics is not merely an issue of equality in school, or about building champion athletes who can win college championships. It is also an issue of health. As America becomes increasingly concerned about the inactivity of its citizens, encouraging a group of people such as women who have been historically discouraged from being physically active is vital for the well-being of the entire nation. Also, when people compete in athletics, they experience a positive uplift in their sense of self-esteem as well as their physical prowess. Women must see other women, like themselves, participating in sports, rather than simply see images of themselves as spectators on the sidelines to gain this sense of positive esteem."
"Critics of Title XI argue that by requiring institutions of higher learning to provide equal funding and equal opportunities for men and women is not valid, because there is less public interest, amongst both men and women, in collegiate sports."
Abstract This paper examines four essays on women in sports that focus on how social, economic, and political institutions often marginalize female athletes in U.S. society. It analyzes the historical view that women are inferior to men with regard to athletic prowess. It also includes discussions on political institutions including legislation, colleges and universities.
From the Paper "A history of sport and women in sport in the United States illustrates how various social economic and political institutions impact the individuals who participate in sport. Historically women have often been viewed ..."
Abstract The paper addresses the issues of women in sports, the changing trends and the struggle involved in accomplishing the desired place in athletics. It describes how the field of sports since 1970?s, has been the obtrusive battleground to fight for the equality of sex. he paper describes how women's participation in sports has increased dramatically since the passage of Title IX.
Table of Contents:
Gender Discrimination and Women Sports Participation
Role of Title IX in Women's Sports Participation
Increased Sports Opportunities for Women
Increase in Men's Support for Women Sports Practical Implications to Increase Women Participation in Sports Getting Results Through Increasing Awareness
Removal of Myths
Augmenting Press Coverage
Getting Authorities Intervene and Take Adequate Actions
Conclusion
From the Paper "Sports are another field where racial differences and gender biases are common. Women equality to play, to prove their abilities and to compete with men on the field is still a primary goal on the women rights association's agenda, those organizations working to ameliorate the contemporary conditions of the womenfolk. However gone are the days when women were willing to conform to the roles of a domestic wife, an obedient daughter and a dutiful sister. Women of today are not only well educated but they are also aware of their rights as human beings. With the signing of the Title IX, women became adamant in accomplishing equality of sex in the field of sports, apart from other disciplines."
Abstract This compares the two books "Friday Night Lights: A Town, a Team, & a Dream" by H. G. Bissinger and "Hardball: A Season in the Projects" by Daniel Coyle. Both books deal with the subject of sports and racial discrimination.
Abstract The writer explores how female athletes have overcome many barriers and still have many more ahead of them. The writer discusses that by competing in professional sports, female athletes challenge beliefs, such as that sports are just for males. The writer suggests that perhaps due to the barriers that women encounter in this field, they should be encouraged to compete in professional sports. In this paper, the writer discusses how the female athletes are making a place for themselves in a traditional male dominated arena.
From the Paper "Women in professional sports encounter many obstacles in their road to participation. They must overcome the lack of institutional support and advocacy, gender bias and discrimination, the idea that sports are for males and males only and images of femininity and sexuality. Yet, despite and perhaps because of these barriers, women should be encouraged to compete in professional sports. Already current research has re-evaluated some of these beliefs. For example, it has shown that physical differences, one of the primary objections to female participation in ... "
Abstract The paper discusses the argument that Title IX, the law about gender equality, has caused reverse discrimination for males in sports. The paper looks at the argument that Title IX has helped bring more funding to women, but has hurt men immensely and has failed to generate any substantial amount of interest in women's sports. The paper explores the research and concludes that Title IX has not led to reverse discrimination. The paper shows how Title IX was not created and enforced to discriminate against men, but rather to provide opportunities for women.
Outline:
Introduction
Progress
Effects
Blame game
The Numbers
Cases
Conclusion
From the Paper "The term Title IX has been thrown around a lot these past few years, however a new question has arisen: Has Title IX led to reverse discrimination in American universities? Title IX is known as a living, breathing law as it has faced over 20 proposed changes. Considering the numerous times the law has been challenged and subjected to reviews, it is hard to understand why anyone would want to change the nation's definition of equality. Since Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 was passed, the United States has gone through serious changes in the classroom and on the playing field. According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, reverse discrimination is stated as, "discrimination against males (as in employment or education)". Title IX was undoubtedly the savior of women's rights. However, in recent years, Title IX has become the subject of reverse discrimination and has even led national associations to file lawsuits based on the losses of male athletes."
Abstract This paper examines the relationship between violence and sports. The paper first asserts that violence in sports is culturally agreeable and goal oriented. The paper then explores recreational violence, including hunting. Next the paper studies how sports legitimize violence and the relationship between sports, violence and masculinity. The paper concludes by studying the effect on male-female relationships of violence in sports.
From the Paper "This research paper addresses the topic of how violence in sports affects our lives. The following relevant areas are presented..."
Abstract In this article, the writer provides a reflection analysis of three different articles from three different periods. The writer looks at the following three articles: "No Man's Land of Sport" by Alexandrine Gibb, "Whitby Senior Public School Girls Win Third Straight Volleyball Crown" by Malcolm Johnson, and "Sports Briefs" from The Toronto Star. Specifically, the paper looks at the socially-constructed body as it pertains to women in sports. In addition, the writer discusses the issues of femininity that arise when looking at the three articles. In the end, the writer argues that attitudes vis-a-vis the female form and female involvement in athletics have evolved generally in a positive manner.
From the Paper "Instead, coverage of women's sports veered towards the athletic abilities of female participants. For example, a January 1985 article in the Toronto Star mentions how Whitby Senior Public School's victory in the Durham Elementary Athletic Association volleyball championships is a testament to the commitment of the athletes involved. In particular, writer Malcolm Johnson approvingly cites coach Jim Higgs, who mentions both competitive zeal and commitment as well as skill as being the chief determinants of his team's success. Suffice it to say, these young girls are now viewed as athletes and as competitors rather than as mass commodities with "nice legs"; just as significantly, there does not appear to be any social construction of the female form at all in this particular article - although the young age of the female competitors involved necessarily argues against that, anyways. Nonetheless, athletic achievement has supplanted "old-fashioned" notions of femininity."
Abstract The purpose of this research paper is to determine whether or not women participating in traditionally male-oriented sports are likely to experience the same respect from both the media and the general public as women participating in other events. Specifically this study examines whether women have the potential to be treated equally when participating in male-oriented sports and whether they are as likely to succeed in men in the same venues. The researcher determines the extent to which women are portrayed as athletes in the news media. The paper explores the following questions: (1) Do women have the same opportunities as men in traditionally male-oriented sports, (2) Are women perceived in the same manner as men when participating in these sports and (3) Do these portrayals influence women's participation in sports. A comprehensive literature review is conducted to discuss these ideas further.
Paper Outline:
Purpose
Research
History of Women in Sports Women in Sports Today
Status of Women in Male Dominated Sports Discussion
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "Wiley, Shaw & Havitz (1999) suggest that women are more likely than men to emphasize pleasure and enjoyment with regard to sports, whereas men are more likely to focus on the competitive aspects of a sport. However women also face higher levels of constraints, thus are only willing to participate when they remain highly motivated. Self expression is also discussed as an important aspect of sports participation, and the authors suggest that women participating in male dominated sports might have an increased sense of self and need to express themselves in an outward and competitive manner than other people (Wiley, Shaw & Havitz, 1999). This pattern was found in men and women alike."
Abstract This paper explains how female athletes face tremendous obstacles and prejudice because by definition they are in opposition to the twin pillars of our patriarchal society: the gender binary system, and compulsory heterosexuality. The paper shows that many athletes and athletic organizations spend a great deal of energy on countering suspicions that women athletes are not "natural," "real," heterosexual, feminine women. The writer suggests that women stop wasting their energy on counteracting societal prejudices, and concentrate on being the best athletes they can be. The paper concludes that society has to change, and acknowledge and affirm the new ways in which 21st century women are choosing to express themselves. The writer believes that in this way, women's sports will some day command the same respect and money as men's sports do.
From the Paper "Our society is rigidly structured on the basis of a gender binary system, which stipulates and prescribes that there must be two - and only two -genders, and moreover that these two genders are the opposites of one another. This system commonly posits the male as the norm, and the female as merely the "other," or simply the opposite of the norm. Within this system, certain attributes are regarded as quintessentially masculine, and others as feminine. Deviation from this is not well tolerated by mainstream society, possibly because it threatens the patriarchal status quo."
Tags:female, athletes, male, athletic, feminine, masculine, society
Abstract This paper discusses the history and development of sports from the ancient Greek ideal of sports to American sports of today. It specifically discusses collective versus individual sports in America and the values of playing sports for fun compared to competitive sports. The paper also briefly looks at the general differences between male and femalesports.
From the Paper "The most popular spectator sports today are collective sports, much in line with the English ideal--baseball, basketball, and football. Even the much despised soccer is popular amongst American youths. Yet Americans cheer on their favorite individual stars in all of these sports, especially if the starts engage in charity efforts to justify their bloated salaries. The tension remains about what good sports do for both the individual or society, and Americans today are clearly using sports as a means of practical self-improvement like the Greeks as well as a means of collective identification like the English: "in the 1950's or 1960's, few people exercised; baseline fitness-consciousness was just above zero. Today, 20% of the U.S. population works out on a regular basis, while an additional 60%+ can be classified as...'Consciousness III'--those persuaded of physical fitness, but who by their own admission, don't get enough exercise. As behavior lags enlightened attitudes, 4 out of 5 adult Americans are true believers in exercise and fitness." But the protests remain that Americans are too busy to exercise, too busy working to do something as decadent as work on their bodies for either the individual or the collective good."
