Abstract The paper discusses how police discretionary decisions can result in the wrong decision at times and can allow police violence and abuse. The paper argues, however, that removing discretionary decisions from policing would create less critical thinking that could lead to even more overcrowding in jails and criminal justice facilities, leading to more public anger against the police and their methods. The paper contends that discretionary thinking leads to better decision-making in policing.
From the Paper "Simply put, police discretion is the ability of police officers to make discretionary judgements on the job, for example, the decision to give a person a ticket for running a red light rather than giving them a warning. The office in the field has the ability to make a decision concerning the validity of a ticket or arrest, and weigh the seriousness of the crime with the consequences. An example of discretion would be an officer who stopped a person for running a red light, only to discover there was an injured person in the car, and the driver was trying to get to a hospital. In that case, the officer might forego a ticket, and actually help the driver by safely escorting he or she to the hospital. Discretion is the ability of the officer to make decisions according to the situation, rather than simply going strictly "by the book.""
An analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the research paper, "The Market Pricing of Accruals Quality", by Jennifer Francis, Ryan LaFond, Per Olsson, Katherine Schipper.
Abstract This paper analyzes the theoretical and methodological strengths and weaknesses of the research paper, "The Market Pricing Of Accruals Quality" by Jennifer Francis, Ryan LaFond, Per Olsson, Katherine Schipper. The paper summarizes the strengths of the research and underlines the weaknesses of the empirical method. Finally, this paper discusses the limitations of the theoretical approach.
Table of Contents:
Synthesis Of Strengths
Accruals Quality Has An Impact On The Information Risk And The Cost Of Capital
Innate Accruals Quality Has A Larger Impact Than Discretionary Accruals Quality Has
Methodological Weaknesses
The Specific Sample Cannot Be Applied Generally
Hypotheses And Methods Are Questionable
There Are Variances Between Empirical Findings And Other Results
Theoretical Limitations
Only The Systematic Component Of Earning Quality Risk Contributes To The Equity Risk Premium
The Relation Between Accruals Quality And Cost Of Capital Depends On The Fundamental Risk
Accruals Quality Is Neither A Priced Risk Factor Nor A Determinant Of The Cost Of Capital
From the Paper "In the paper Earnings quality and the equity risk premium: a benchmark model, Yee makes a distinction between the fundamental earnings and the reported earnings: the fundamental earnings are the accounting profits generating future dividend cash flows, while the reported earnings are the imperfect signal of fundamental earnings. He also makes the difference between the two sources of associated earnings risk: the fundamental risk and the earnings quality risk. The fundamental risk is the uncertainty of future dividends payments, whereas the earnings quality risk or information risk is the uncertainty that the reported earnings may not be announced quickly and precisely. Only the systematic components of earnings risk contribute to the equity risk premium, while all the components, either systematic or diversifiable, affect the earnings capitalization factors."
An analysis of Celesta Albonetti's 1986 study, "Criminality, Prosecutorial Screening, and Uncertainty: Toward a Theory of Discretionary Decision Making in Felony Case Processings".
Abstract In this paper, the author summarizes and analyzes Celesta Albonetti's 1986 study on the influences of prosecuting attorneys on pursuing felony persecutions after grand jury indictments, entitled "Criminality, Prosecutorial Screening, and Uncertainty: Toward a Theory of Discretionary Decision Making in Felony Case Processings". The paper then goes on to critique the findings of Albonetti's paper, one of which states that discretion is motivated by the professional and career interests of the attorney. The author concludes that although the study may need more current data to reinforce its conclusions, its hypothesis remains to be a relevant concern in criminal justice systems because it suggests a threat to the equitable application of the law.
Outline:
Introduction
Findings and Conclusions
Critique
From the Paper "Celesta Albonetti (1986) studied the factors that influence prosecuting attorneys to pursue felony prosecution after grand jury indictments. The study was developed from several studies investigating the exercise of discretion in prosecutorial decision making. In addition there is also an interest in the mechanisms of uncertainty avoidance and in the efforts to establish standards of rationality in decision making. Under the perspectives of the study, from the discretion practiced on individual cases, insights to risk evaluation and rationality can be derived because they establish a pattern or routine that is used to determine the outcome of cases. Thus, by studying discretion patterns in determining the value of pursuing felony prosecutions, Albonetti suggests that the pattern of processing can also be established."
Tags: prosecution indictments motivations law criminal, justice
Abstract This paper explains that the problem of discretionary police judgment, in some cases, clearly leads to abuses of police power, even among police who are academically educated and have attended structured training in discretionary decision-making. The author points out that any time a police department uses racial profiling as part of a process to decide whom to stop, that practice requires judgment and discretion on the part of the officers. The paper reveals that police officers routinely choose whom to stop for traffic violations and how to deal with them once they have been stopped because they do not have time to stop everyone who commits a traffic violation; but the departments should have clear priorities about traffic violations, so that officers can be free to deal with more serious issues, such as reckless driving and incidents of road rage.
Table of Contents
Public Substance Abuse
Different Neighborhoods Handled Differently
Racial Profiling
Traffic Violations
Public Soliciting
Public Drunkenness
Domestic Abuse
Public Disturbances
Police Chases
From the Paper "When William Bratton, former New York City Police Commissioner, was interviewed, he argued that different neighborhoods might want laws enforced differently. He argued that this was the basis for ?community policing.? He said that different communities want different kinds of crime made a priority. He used Harlem as an example, and said that in 1994 and 1995 they had to deal with drug dealing, prostitution, gaming, and other public crimes. He also said that after public street problems were under control the police were under pressure to make more arrests, which to Bratton didn?t make sense (Newfield & Jacobson, 2000). However, it's hard to imagine any neighborhood that would be willing to have those crimes, when taking place in full view of the public, ignored. If the police target drug dealing say, in Harlem, more than, say, the Upper East Side, charges of racism would inevitably follow. While there may be a place for police discretion, it should not be up to the police officer on the street to decide which public crimes get ignored and which get dealt with."
Abstract The paper examines the human resources recruitment, performance appraisal, pay and benefits at the JetBlue airline. The paper uses JetBlue as a example of human resources playing an integral role in the success of the company.
Outline:
Equal Employment Opportunity Laws Impacting Jet Blue's Hiring Practices
Internal Recruitment Methods
External Recruiting Methods
Effects of Recruitment Methods on JetBlue's Recruitment Efforts
Personnel Selection and Goals
Factors That Influence a Performance Appraisal System
360- Degree Feedback Evaluation Advantages
Why Should JetBlue Adopt a 360-Degree Feedback Evaluation?
Employee-Related Factors that are Essential in Determining Financial Compensation
Discretionary Benefits
How JetBlue Has Incorporated Discretionary Benefits
Conclusion
From the Paper "The Equal Employment Opportunity Laws gives a blueprint for the development of HR systems that are constant with legal requirements and make HR decisions that are legally defensible. JetBlue Airways has always been a company which implements equal race, gender and nationality policies. Various laws impacting the hiring practices of employers take place all over the country. Due to these laws which have been set in place to protect potential employees, and to protect their employers, such laws have been passed and amended to enhance the hiring of all organizations. Acts such as the Pregnancy Act of 1978, Americans with Disabilities act of 1990, the Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment act of 1994, and the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1996 are all laws that have been passed to protect the right of those who are seeking positions within an employer daily."
Examines theories, need for, alternative approaches to curtailing discretionary & divided govt., gridlock, bureaucracy, cultural war, public indifference.
1,575 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 5 sources, 1997, $ 55.95
From the Paper " Analysts have observed an increase among the electorate in both apathy and disaffection toward all levels of government. People have always complained about the bureaucracy they have to face when they have business with the government. They have always criticized programs which did not work and spending they feel is misdirected. They have also always been aware of governmental corruption and at times have been more or less willing to accept it as a given if not to tolerate it. In recent years, though, ethical questions have become more important as the public has become fed up with lapses in their bureaucratic structure. The perception is that government is beset by gridlock, incompetence, and corruption, and people have little patience with the corruption in particular. What is sought is a model of "bureaucratic responsibility" to deal with this issue.."
An examination of the programs aimed at balancing the budget. Includes background, spending cut options (discretionary, defense, entitlement), public support, politics and health care costs.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 6 sources, 1994, $ 47.95
From the Paper " Deficit reduction moved to the top of America's public agenda in February 1993 when President Clinton laid out his economic plan. In a major speech to Congress that took the problem of the national debt seriously, President Clinton underscored his intention to encourage the nation to think long term. He described the kinds of sacrifices that will be necessary to reduce the deficit over the next five years, proposing a series of spending cuts and tax increases.
The purpose of this research is to examine the programs necessary to reduce the federal deficit and move towards a balanced budget. Emphasis will be given to examining the types of spending cuts available to the federal government for reducing the deficit. The relative contribution of these spending cuts toward balancing the federal budget will be also be assessed."
Abstract The author of this paper believes that the capitalist exploitation of employees must end. The paper presents many reasons why U.S. capitalism needs to undergo a major reformation utilizing Marxist ideas and discusses how this reform should be implemented. The author feels that racism is used to fuel capitalism social problems.
From the Paper "In light of this new death-benefit policy, capitalism has begun to take on a ghoulish and even more hideous quality than had previously been suggested even by Karl Marx, who warned of the dangers of capitalism long ago. Businesses have indeed overstepped that fine ethical line that separates earning a living through respectable business pursuits from the pure unadulterated pursuit of financial gain by any means necessary. Companies should not be permitted to insure their employees? lives without their knowledge or at all for that matter. This new exploitation is being perpetrated in a caliginous and unseemly manner."
This paper discusses the ABC accounting process, which evaluates and determines ways to improve the quality of financial decisions at the Department of Defense (DoD).
Abstract This paper explains that the Department of Defense (DoD), with more than $1 trillion in assets and a budget that accounts for about half of the federal government's discretionary funding, has a need for accurate accounting processes. The author points out that ABC captures quantified cost and time data and translates it into information for making decisions by measuring process and activity performance, by determining the cost of business process outputs, and by identifying opportunities to improve process efficiency and effectiveness. The paper concludes that the ultimate decision will be based on a blended action that minimizes cost and time, while creating a better outcome.
Table of Contents
Big Need for Accurate Accounting
ABC in the Military
Process Decision Example
Success Stories
NASA
Fleet and Industrial Supply Center (FISC)
Military Resistance to ABC?
Who Might Benefit in the DoD?
From the Paper "In the 1990s, the RAND Corporation, including its defense-oriented federally funded research and development organizations, offered a better way for the DoD to pay for its purchases, one it thought would improve the interactions; after all, if a unit overspent in one year, then the next year it would be looking for lower prices. That meant that the organization it purchased from would experience a loss, or potentially could, which in turn could affect the service or product quality or delivery. However, the WCF arrangement bore the stamp of approval of the DoD Comptroller's office, which suggested that the WCF approach has saved ?billions of dollars by providing managers with greater visibility into the costs of DoD support operations.?"
Tags: rand, budget, time, cost, website, purchases
Abstract This paper examines the concept of abstract authentication in federated database systems and the difficulties presented because the autonomously operated components may not know the identity of federation users. It looks at how one proposed solution is subject switching, where the federation translates the federated users identity to that of an agreed upon component subject and how this translation may be problematic due to not having component subjects with the same accesses requested by federation users. It proposes using proximity measures between requested and provided access and presents two policy neutral algorithms to find proximity minimizing matches between a federation subject and a collection of component subjects. It also explores the concepts relating to federated databases, authorization and access, and proposes some algorithms that will facilitate the subject switching method of reconciling access requirements.
Outline
Section 1
Abstract
Background
Introduction
Characteristics of Federated Databases
Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous Databases
Agents
Agents and Meaning
Perspective
Types of Meaning
Semantics Versus Pragmatics
Context
Coverage of Communicative Acts
Mental Versus Social Agency
Section 2
Federated Database Systems and Autonomy
Design Autonomy
Communication Autonomy
Execution Autonomy
Association Autonomy
Authorization Autonomy
Distribution Transparency (i.e., Schema Integration)
Tightly Coupled
Limited Tight Coupling
Loosely Coupled
Federated Database Security
Authorization
Standards for Authentication
Decentralized vs. Centralized Authorization
Access Controls
User Based Access Control (UBAC)
Policy Based Access Control
Content Dependent Access Control (CDAC)
Context Based Access Control (CBAC)
View Based Access Control (VBAC)
Discretionary Access Control (DAC)
Mandatory Access Control (MAC)
Role Based Access Control (RBAC)
Section 3
Subject Switching
Subject Mapping Algorithms
Mapping Process
Federation Mapping Process
Federation Identity
Component Mapping Process
Minimum Disparity Measure
Mapping Algorithm
Create Object Sets
Identify Component Subjects
Evaluate Matching Subjects
Access Disparity Measures
Numerical Disparity Measure
Comparing Disparity Measures to Approximate Measures
Approximate Disparity Measure Comparison
Motivating Example
Access Compatibility Measures and Algorithms
Compatibility of Permissions and their Disparity Measures
Cardinality
Express Specification
Section 4
Metrics
Algorithm 1 (Least Under Permitting Algorithm)
Algorithm 2 (Least Over Permitting Algorithm)
Approximations: Metrics And Mappings
Approximate Mapping Algorithms
Algorithm 3 (Approximate Under Permitting Algorithm)
Algorithm 4 (Approximate Over Permitting Algorithm)
Properties of Algorithms 3 and Algorithm 4
Multilevel Federations
Non-Protected Database
Axioms
Deductive Channels Control Theorems
Signalling Channels Control Theorems
Cover Story
Multi-view Databases
Languages
Section 5
Conclusions and Ongoing Work
References
From the Paper "Heimbingner and McLeod coined the phrase Federated Database System in 1985, and Seth and Larson later confirmed the formal definition. While the term has been loosely used to refer to several different but related database systems, they more precisely and unanimously define it as a collection of cooperating but autonomous component database systems. [SL90] (According to Oszu 1999, semi-autonomous systems are termed federative DBMS). A federated database system represents a compromise between no integration, wherein users must explicitly interface with multiple autonomous databases, and total integration, where the autonomy of each distinct database is sacrificed in order to allow users access through a single global interface."
Abstract Many aspects of the Amish culture remain quite traditional. These aspects include their dress, the use of horses, and the importance of a close-knit family and community. They are also extremely devoted to their faith. The paper shows that despite these traditional aspects, the Amish have integrated modern technologies into their lives. They have been able to maintain their core values while compromising with the changing world. The paper argues that the Amish people's discretionary use of modern technology can be commended.
Paper Outline:
Introduction
Origins of the Old Order Amish
Empirical Technologies In Amish Society
Conclusion
Works Cited
From the Paper "Community phones also save the Amish farmers from the embarrassment of dragging barn dirt and smells into non-Amish homes. There is always a need to make appointments with doctors, contact veterinarians and feed dealers, and for the businessmen to order supplies (Kraybill 146). Establishing community phones in Amish society suggests the difficulty of trying to remain strictly traditional in this modern world. They have found that as the world becomes more modern, the more they are forced to alter their behavior, attitudes, and lifestyle. Change becomes a mandatory process."
Abstract This paper begins with a definition of the legal term 'non forum conveniens'. It continues to explore the traditional application and the newer concept of this doctrine. The discussion then focuses on the practical implications of the doctrine by reviewing a legal case. In conclusion, the author expands on the effects of this type of discretionary power.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Forum Non Conveniens
Osuwu V Jackson and Forum Non Conveniens
Discussion and Conclusion
References
From the Paper "The article also asserts that there is a traditional and new form of the concept of forum non conveniens. The traditional view came about as a result of the St. Pierre Case decided in the UK. This case found that "a court could not refuse to consider a case within its jurisdiction unless the plaintiff's choice of forum was:...oppressive or vexatious to the defendant or would be an abuse of process in some other way. The belief concerning the traditional use of forum non conveniens was that such a rule would prevent a spiteful plaintiff from deliberately harassing a defendant through legal action in an inconvenient location. Because taking a company to court in its home country could not amount to harassment, local corporations had no escape from their home courts under the traditional concept of forum non conveniens."
Abstract In this paper, the writer shows that Michael Lipsky identifies the primary area in which government bureaucrats have discretionary decision-making power. The writer looks at the processes upon which bureaucratic decision-making is heavily reliant.
From the Paper "In his analysis, Michael Lipsky identifies the primary area in which government bureaucrats have discretionary decision-making power. Bureaucrats exercise discretion in decisions about citizens with whom they interact. Over time the sum total of the exercise of this discretion and the decisions made by these bureaucrats becomes the agency's culture or behavior. Both Lipsky's and Brehm Gates' analysis demonstrates that bureaucratic decision-making processes are heavily reliant on two important factors. First bureaucratic decision making is dependent on the way supervisors filter agency policy down to subordinates. Second ... "
Abstract The paper discusses the police force and how the government, resources and the public influence them. The paper explains how police departments are obliged to follow policies legalized by the government and they have to contend with budgetary constraints. The paper examines previous and current instances of racism that have resulted in public distrust of the police and maintains that community policing programs have remedied many negative public perceptions. The paper concludes that through careful discretionary practices, however, it is possible for the police department to remedy its image in the public eye. The paradigm of partnership with the community can be cultivated even with budget cuts.
Contents:
The Role of the Public
The Rules
Other Influences
Conclusion
From the Paper "Being a police officer might be one of the most stressful jobs available today. The reasons for this are myriad, with the already odious nature of the work exacerbated by outside issues such as money, social issues and government issues. The police, as will be seen, walk a thin line when it comes to ethics and morality. Not only are they under close scrutiny, especially in the United States, of a public made up of a widely diverse group of ethnicity and rules of conduct, but they are also under government and financial pressure to perform their task with minimal resources. In an ideal situation, the task of the police is to fight, diminish and minimize crime. This aim has however been complicated by social, financial and legal issues. Below is a consideration of the influence of the public, the government and resources on the police force and the discrimination that is the daily task of the police officer."
Abstract The paper discusses how grants in aid are defined as federal assistance to the states in the form of funding for a variety of public programs which are administered at the state level by state officials. The paper explains that grants in aid are intended to help the states provide services to their citizens that could not be provided without federal money, or which would have to be curtailed if they have to be funded exclusively by the state. The paper relates that grants in aid are both discretionary and mandatory. The former involves federal money that can be spent by the states in a flexible variety of ways, while the latter involves money that can only be spent on specified programs or services.
