Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to discuss whether the childhood mental disorders of depression and bipolar disorder are under-or over-diagnosed in the population. It is argued here that both childhood depression and bipolar disorder with childhood onset are under-diagnosed. The paper discusses each disorder separately and makes the case for under-diagnosis. However, it should be noted that some of the arguments supporting under-diagnosis are the same for both conditions.

From the Paper
"The purpose of this paper is to discuss whether the childhood mental disorders of depression and bipolar disorder are under or over-diagnosed in the population. It is argued here that both childhood depression and bipolar disorder with childhood onset are under-diagnosed. The paper discusses each disorder separately and makes the case for under-diagnosis. However, it should be noted that some of the arguments that support under-diagnosis are the same for both conditions."

Tags:childhood depression, bipolar disorder with childhood onset

Abstract
This paper discusses the use of medication versus behavioral modifications in treating ADHD. The author suggests that ADHD is over-diagnosed and that medications such as Ritalin are being prescribed when they are not necessary.

Abstract
This paper analyzes whether dissociative identity disorder (DID), also known by its older designation to lay people as multiple personality disorder (MPD) or split personality, really exists. It discusses the disease's diagnosis and pathogenesis and the problems with differential diagnoses. The paper suggests that the diagnosis of DID should be guarded, preferably made as a diagnosis of exclusion. The paper also contains an annotated bibliography.

From the Paper
"However, Merckelbach, Devilly and Rassin's review of the alters in DID effectively challenge the prevailing support for DID in calling into question the very nature of the claimed multiple personality. The authors sought a better definition of the multiple identities associated with DID. They assert that, as opposed to unconvincing evidence of the existence of alters ranging from acceptance due to their mutually exclusive memories to distinct documented physiological profiles (fMRI, EEG), these personalities can alternately be seen as emotional metaphors and escapist thought (Merckelbach, Devilly and Rassin 486-490). Needless to say, there is very little consensus among the psychiatric community on what the alters actually are, in large part due to the lack of a control group and a further lack of knowledge regarding memory function (Merckelbach, Devilly and Rassin 492). Furthermore, their research supports the claim in showing that there can be no absolutely reliable diagnosis of DID because the "personalities" themselves cannot be proven to be real alter-identities."

Tags:pathogenisis, differential, diagnosis, multiple, personality, disorder, split, mental

Abstract
The writer of this paper contends that a sure sign a child may have a learning disability is when his or her academic achievement is significantly lower than his or her overall cognitive ability would predict. This paper analyzes the growing evidence which states that genetics may play a role in assessing whether or not a child has a learning disability. This paper discusses the difficulty in correctly diagnosing learning disabilities while researchers and specialists claim that cerebral dysfunction may be a contributing factor, although this has yet to be confirmed. This paper examines the various forms of treatment which have proven successful yet must be tailored to meet the needs of each child. The writer stresses and explains that in order for treatment to be successful general education teachers and specialists must work together using a problem-solving approach.

Table of Contents:
Early Signs of Learning Disabilities
Causes
Assessment
Treatment
Learning Disabilities and Inclusion
Bibliography

From the Paper
"Because learning disabilities can take so many forms, determining the cause can be difficult. Researchers assume some form of cerebral dysfunction, but often the precise reason for this cannot be identified. Some things that my contribute include trauma during birth, low birth weight, smoking by the mother while pregnant or alcohol consumption by the expected mother. Lead exposure in early child can be a contributor as 50% of children with documented lead poisoning show reading problems. Other contributors include some illnesses, such as some forms of meningitis, and chronic ear infections have been tied to some learning and communication problems."

Tags:special, education, testing, cerebral, dysfunction, therapy, treatment, teachers, specialists

Abstract
This paper is on diagnosing organizations. It is a critical synthesis paper explaining what the diagnosis is about and then it talks about what it is good for. It then describes a few methods of carrying out the diagnosis.

Abstract
This paper begins by describing sinusitis as the swelling of the paranasal tissues, which can be caused by either communicable or allergic symptoms. The purpose of this paper is to see if x-rays are necessary in diagnosing this condition. The paper explains how x-rays work and, therefore, why they can be useful in obtaining a correct diagnosis in the case of sinusitis.

From the Paper
"Sinusitis is basically classified into chronic and acute cases, in which the acute sinusitis involves abnormal secretion and production of mucous, which is a lot similar to cystic fibrosis. This is diagnosed after noticing the air fluid levels in the sinuses after an x-ray. It has been noticed that patients who are suffering from an immunodeficiency diseases like HIV or AIDS are more prone to this acute sinusitis. Chronic sinusitis on the other hand can be diagnosed if the patient has had a sinus infection for more than three weeks to three months. There are different causes for chronic sinusitis that could be allergies, asthma, nasal polyps, and damp weather. The nasal sinus wall thickening and the body sclerosis noticed while x-rays are its best symptoms. This disease can affect a lot of the general population."

Tags:nasal, acute, cough, cold, throat

Abstract
Both individuals presented in this case study were diagnosed by a psychiatrist who provided therapeutic treatment. The paper provides information on the treatment provided and its affects. The writer discusses these case studies and the effect of the different treatments used in each case, and how each patient benefited differently from the therapies.

From the Paper
"Raymond is a seven-year-old African-American male. He was referred to the Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Service program at East Orange General Hospital through the elementary school he attends. The recommendation came from his teacher due to various occasions, within two months, in which he was suspended for fighting with other students. He also had a history of outbursts in class, such as cursing and swearing at the teacher and other adults, kicking and spitting at adults as well as classmates, and throwing objects such as books, desks, and chairs. Raymond was seen by the on staff psychiatrist and was diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder. The psychiatrist also requested individual and group therapy as part of his treatment. The goal of treatment for Raymond would be to modify his behavior in a way that would be acceptable in society. It is expected for the patient to identify with the issues that had labeled him as high risk. With the help of therapy, Raymond should identify and verbalize feelings leading to disruptive behavior. The ultimate goal for Raymond is to be able to take control of his life in a productive manner that is conducive to himself and others. Margie is a 37 year-old African-American mother of two adult children. She had been treated by various therapeutic agencies. She came to the mental health clinic at East Orange General Hospital on a voluntary basis for her depression. The psychiatrist diagnosed Margie with Major Depressive Disorder with Anxiety Disorder. The psychiatrist recommended individual therapy. Margie's treatment goal is to develop healthier, less destructive relationships. She needs to understand and work through her feelings of fear and inability to trust others. Margie needs to verbalize experiences that lead to, and maintain; anger, depressive moods, and abusive relations with others. She needs to develop healthier boundaries and sense of self."

Tags:cognitive, treatment, therapy

Abstract
This paper looks at the Gestalt theory, pioneered by Max Wertheimer in 1924, which attempts to examines the underlying causes of things by going back to the basic principles of science instead of just looking at something on its surface. In particular, it analyzes how it may be helpful in treating patients who have been diagnosed with social anxiety disorder or some other form of social phobia or antisocial behavior. It attempts to explain the both the theory and the disorder and then tie them together in order to clearly understand how the theory can be used in the modification of behavior in individuals with social anxiety and how many individuals can be helped and freed from the self-imposed prison that their disorder has created.

From the Paper
"Those therapists who use Gestalt theory in the modern day often feel that it is very helpful in treating all kinds of anxiety and depression. Naturally, it is not the only therapy that is used, as existential, psychoanalytic, and behavioral therapies, among others, are also popular with anxiety and depression troubled individuals. It is, however, one of the leading therapies used for aging patients who have difficulty coping with the losses that often come with living a long time such as poor health, the death of a spouse, or unexpected parenting of grandchildren (Solomon, 1996). It is also popular with many other age groups and many different types of anxiety, including social anxiety."

Tags:anxiety, depression, max, wertheimer, social, phobia

Abstract
This paper looks at the Tuskegee medical experiments which were conducted by the United States Public Health Service (PHS) between 1932 and 1972 on 399 African-American adult male subjects who were diagnosed as having late stage syphilis. It argues that the Tuskegee experiments were unjustified on moral and ethical grounds and how together with many other examples of scientific experiments in which human beings have been used as unwitting guinea pigs in the twentieth century stand as warnings of the misguided, immoral, racist and even genocidal ends which scientific research sometimes serves. It also briefly examines other medical experiments of the 20th Century in which racial minorities were victimized.

Outline
Facts Concerning the Tuskegee Experiments
Assessment of the Tuskegee Experiments
Broader Implications
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The victims of Nazi experiments who were held against their will in hospitals, prisoner of war camps and concentration camps clearly lacked freedom of choice. It is doubtful whether soldiers who 'volunteer' for such experiments really have much choice, such as the unsuspecting soldiers used in the 1940s and 1950s as participants in the Department of Energy's Human Radiation Experiments (Katz and Owens 6). The Tuskegee participants volunteered but, as noted above, only after having been lied to about the nature of their illness, the treatment they would receive and the risks associated with invasive procedures such as lumbar and spinal taps. The most egregious lies and deceits were committed against the black group of adult males, the principal focus of the Experiments, in order to induce them to participate and to prevent them from seeking treatment elsewhere. However, as Chadwick et al. have pointed out, the group of 201 adult white males who were used as a control group and who did not have syphilis were also deceived. They were told at one point by PHS researchers that they had contracted the disease in order to gauge their levels of psychological stress and to compare them with the stress levels of the blacks under study (16-17)."

Tags:experiments, genocide, racial, minorities, medical, research

Abstract
PTSD as a psychiatric diagnosis first diagnosed in combat veterans. Traumatic events experienced by adolescents that can trigger severe psychological resonses. Criteria needed for a diagnosis of PTSD. Population affected. Symptoms. Effect on behaviors; interupption of normal functioning. Lack of coping strategies of adolescents. Treatment available. Importance of early intervention.

From the Paper
"This paper is a discussion of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adolescents. PTSD is a relatively recent diagnosis which recognizes the fact that the direct or indirect experience of traumatic events can trigger severe psychological responses that present through a series of related symptoms and interfere with the individual's ability to function. When such trauma occurs to an adolescent, the results can be especially disruptive since they are happening during a critical period of development and can also interfere with personality formation and the individual's process of learning to cope with the world. Diagnosis is complex; a range of criteria must be present in order to diagnose PTSD accurately. Early intervention can help to mediate the impact of trauma, as can factors in the individual's life, including personal resilience and social ..."