Abstract This paper discusses Hinduism. It specifically discusses the definition and evolution of dharma and how dharma symbolizes the hard to classify and all-encompassing nature of Hinduism. The paper looks at the history of dharma in the Vedic period and the forms of dharma and the modern perspective on dharma. The paper also discusses how this perspective is constantly seeking new definitions.
From the Paper "The modern perspective on dharma continues to ask these questions and probe out new definitions for this broad term. Modern figures such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, as a result of their encounter with Western categories and models, have "developed their own distinctive interpretations of dharma in which they abandoned the traditional emphasis on var ramadharma and attempted instead to 'ethicize and universalize dharma'" (Holdrege 244). These "neo-Hindus" seek to espouse different kinds of dharma or different interpretations of it. This shows a continuation of a tradition that began over two millennia ago of critiquing and evolving the conception of dharma to fit the context of modernity and time. The evolution of dharma serves to strengthen its central thesis of contextualization and subtlety even more - empowering this term as an intrinsic force in human life that constantly reminds people of the intricate and multi-faceted existence we live in. Dharma truly epitomizes Hinduism."
Abstract This paper examines the different concepts of Dharma in Hinduism and Theravada Buddhism by focusing on the differences and similarities of the way of life between the followers of the two religions. It looks at how Dharma represents the beliefs about how things are or the right way of living. It shows how although the teachings of Dharma are eminent in both Hinduism and Theravada Buddhism, both however display similarities and distinctiveness. The Theravada Buddhists strictly confine themselves to the dharma or teachings of the ancient Buddha contained in the volume called the Tripitaka.
From the Paper "Hinduism believes that all things have a dharma or participate in the dharma of the world. Man is given the responsibility to practice dharma by implementing its principles in their life and doing what they believe is right. This practice according to the concept of dharma will allow them to live a life of peace and harmony. According to dharma, if a man lives by these practices he will attain the goal of life, which is eternal peace. Hinduism also states that it can take several incarnations to achieve the state of nirvana, dharma of moksha, but to reach the goal of this task is equally important."
Abstract This paper examines Buddhist Dharma - the law, truth and virtue of Buddhism. The author points out that it defines the way of life to attain Nirvana or Bodhisattva - the extinction of desire and release from the suffering it causes. The paper relates the essence of the Dharma and how it applies to a Buddhist life.
From the Paper "Dharma comprises the essential ideas of the words truth virtue and law Kaviratna. The path of Dhammapada dhamma or Dharma was composed by the First Council of Buddhist Elders shortly after the passing of Lord Buddha and consists of a collection..."
Abstract The paper relates that Hinduism is one of the world's oldest religions. The paper explains that its concepts can be useful for individuals interested in answering some of the core philosophical questions about the nature of reality and of self. The paper examines the concept of Atman that is central to Hinduism, a religion that stands out among others for its open-mindedness and tolerance. The paper notes that it is likely that the Hindu concepts of Atman and Brahman foster open-mindedness with regards to spiritual practices. The paper discusses how Atman and other concepts in the Sanatana Dharma reveal the interconnectedness of all things.
Outline:
Introduction
Atman and its Relationship to Other Key Concepts in Sanatana Dharma The Importance of Atman in Terms of What it Does and What it Is
Atman in Comparison/Contrast with Concepts in Other Religions
Applications of the Theory of Atman
Recommendations
Conclusion
From the Paper "Who am I? What is the meaning of life? These are the essential, fundamental questions that religions and spiritual traditions help people to answer. Eastern religions like Hinduism are especially suited for answering such questions because their philosophical underpinnings promote a deep awareness of the truths underlying reality and the nature of self. The Sanatana Dharma is a complex and ancient set of philosophical, metaphysical, and cosmological doctrines that range from tales of supernatural beings to treatises on the nature of reality."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that Hinduism grew up around a collection of different traditions and stories, and as such has many sacred elements. The writer discusses five elements that are the most fundamental and characterize the Hindu tradition, those of dharma, samsara, karma, moksha and yogas. The writer maintains that these five influence every aspect of Hindu life, as they represent the Hindu's understanding of the nature of the universe, the nature of life, the goals that a soul must have, and the pathways to achieve these goals. The writer concludes that the five sacred elements of dharma, samsara, karma, moksha and yogas combine to outline the Hindu understanding of the nature of the world, the goal of Hinduism and the path taken to reach that goal. Most of Hinduism's daily rituals, activities and traditions derive from these sacred beliefs.
From the Paper "This is a key difference between Hindu tradition and many other religions in that because of dharmic law, Hindus believe that the keys to eternal bliss are here on Earth. The concept of dharma has a counterpoint in adharma, which includes intoxication, pride and contact.
"Samsara is the cycle of life, death and rebirth. This cycle is at the foundation of Hindu belief about the nature of the universe, and much of the faith is derived from this sacred element. The cycle of life, death and rebirth is endless, and driven by karma. The ultimate objective for a Hindu is to exit this cycle. To be trapped in this cycle is therefore undesirable, as it means that one does not understand one's true self. That lack of understanding traps one in the phenomenal world, in the cycle of samsara."
Abstract This paper looks at the Hindu creed concerning life and death. It examines how according to the "Bhagavad-Gita", an ambiguity arises as to how one is supposed to live life in accordance with Krishna's teachings of life and death. It argues how Krishna brings up the fact that one should not worry about killing because of the insignificance of the current life. Thus, leading one to question why one should refrain from killing at all. It evaluates how the teachings of Krishna portray how one should live life in a disciplined manner so that one may attain knowledge. It shows how the ultimate goal that Krishna teaches is to detach oneself from the fruits of one's actions so that one may conduct oneself in a manner that may allow one to fulfill his/her dharma and therefore be closer to the ultimate goal of immortality.
From the Paper "Knowledge plays a very important role in reaching the ultimate goal. "You will cross over all evil on the raft of knowledge" (Gita 54) assures Krishna. If one wishes to attain a goal, one must have knowledge on what he/she must do in order to achieve it. ?He who really knows my divine birth and my action, escapes rebirth when he abandons the body ? and comes to me?? (Gita 50). Thus, the person who has faith in the divinity and does his duties without seeing a clear cause to do so will be the one who will be able to escape this vicious cycle of birth and rebirth. Ultimately, it is a combination of discipline and knowledge that is required of a person who wishes to attain moksha."
Abstract This essay focusses on two major features of Hinduism that impacted on Siddhartha Gautama ? dharma and nirvana. The paper examines predominantly Buddhist texts in order to analyse the negative and positive responses they had on Gautama's teachings. However, since both terms can have widely varying meanings attached, depending on sect, especially within Buddhism, and usage, only a general overview is practical in this short essay.
From the Paper "At the time Siddhartha Gautama (c. 560 BCE ? c. 480 BCE) was born both Western and Eastern civilisations were experiencing a sharp rise in intellectual and religious development, and India was no exception. Born into the kshatriya, or warrior caste, in the predominantly Hindu region of north-east India, raised in luxury and well educated, Gautama took advantage of the developments of this period and attempted to reinterpret traditional Hinduism."
Abstract This paper discusses how, from "The Lotus Sutra", Buddha passed on teachings that became known as the "Expedients" and how within these teachings is the wisdom of the Buddha. It looks at how the Expedients exist through basic understandings and how Buddhism fundamentally revolves around simple virtues and teachings that require of its practitioners merely simple things, like peace, understanding, and honor of oneself and others. It also discusses how, although such solutions in a corrupt and vice-filled world may seem like lofty goals, it is with teachings like the Lotus Sutra and the practice of the Dharma that it is possible to have guidelines on a path that follows through the thickest and darkest of forests.
From the Paper "For this reason, Buddha appeared in the world: to develop this Truth through teachings and practicing Bodhisattvas, while applying wisdom through sutras like the Lotus Sutra. The final basic understanding for the Expedients is that people initially were not aware of the way of the Truth and therefore could not apply it naturally to their lives. It was for the Buddha to apply different teachings to the different classes of people, for example, different doctrines would enable different castes and intellects to grasp the Buddha's teachings and allow them to apply them to their unique lifestyles. These different doctrines were all expedient teachings that had one purpose ? to teach the Truth; the Lotus Sutra."
Abstract Hinduism, or Santana Dharma, is thought to be over thousands of years old. This paper examines how Hinduism can be considered to be a way of life instead of a united religion because it is comprised of so many beliefs, rituals, principles and philosophies.
From the Paper "The major structure or framework of Hinduism is comprised of three different groupings: Saktas who worships a Mother Goddess, Saivites who worship the god Siva, and Vaishnavites who worship the god Vishnu and most Hindus will devote to their own individual deity but will honor them all (Fisher, 2005). At the status of village level, most female deities are shown as stones or a tree and they are not thought of as taking on a human shape. The status of upper class goddesses have temples made for worship and the lower class were prohibited from the temples. One of these goddesses is Durga and is often to have a soft, beautiful face but has 10 arms that yield swords and other weapons to diminish evil. She also rides a lion (Fisher, 2005)."
Abstract This paper examines how reincarnation is a central aspect of the Hindu religion that was rejected by the founder of Buddhism and the emphasis Buddhism places on life in the present. The paper discusses how, although Hinduism has borrowed from Buddhism's attention to dharma, only one stream of Buddhism has incorporated reincarnation from Hinduism, the other stream quite determined to reject its possibility.
Outline:
Introduction
Origins in India
Samsara - What the Buddha Rejected
Buddhist Divisions
The Large Raft and the Little Raft
From the Paper "The Buddha described the human being who could reach Nirvana, as a kind of 'blowing out' or extinction of the self. (Waldon 301) He probably meant a person having come to accept the world's suffering and how human beings created their own suffering, a point reached of detachment allowing the person to attend to dharma, causing no suffering to others, elevated from the general unhappiness and darkness of the world. Some Buddhists believe the idea of nirvana was meant to resemble Hinduism's union with the divine though the Buddha stressed the absence of god. The term of atta in Pali is similar to the Sanskrit term of atman or 'soul' but unlike Hinduism's expectation of the soul moving onwards and upwards through proper cultivation, the Buddha believed that a well-developed person would reach a point of anatta -- or having no soul. "
Abstract This paper looks at how, although practicing Hindus in different societies alter their religion to suit the needs of their own cultures, they all share a core of rich and complex traditions. It discusses how three major creeds constitute Hinduism with each one of them having a different idea of the divine, the universe, and the human condition. It also examines different traditions such as Dharma and Samskara.
From the Paper "In his book Hinduism: World Religions (1991), Madhu Bazaz Wangu explains that unlike Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, and Islam religions, Hinduism is not founded by one individual but rather it is a mixture of many beliefs and philosophical schools. From its beginnings, the religion has been polytheistic, and some even estimate the number of Hindu gods to be in the thousands. Although this is the case, Wangu expresses that there is really only one true god who is the complete embodiment of all other gods. Brahman is the true god who is at the heart of all Hinduism and is also referred to as the One, the Ultimate Reality, and the World Soul. All Hindu gods form a part of Brahman (Wangu 8)."
Abstract This paper examines the classification, or caste, system that exists in Hindu societies and the purposes. The author discusses the Brahmins, who are priests and scholars; the Kshatrias, warriors and rulers; the Vaishyas, who pursue commerce and trades; and the Shudras, serfs who serve and support the three higher groups.
From the Paper:
"The Western idea of knowledge and wisdom almost always, it seems, has a material purpose, to master physical problems in physical ways. The Hindu idea is to master what is physical to be liberated from physical concern altogether. Thus it seems true that in general all cultures, human development can be described as the process from childhood to youth to adulthood to old age. It also seems true that all cultures can be said to desire wisdom and knowledge. But the real importance of the whole process is judged by each culture's priorities, which are not the same in Hinduism, in Buddhism, and in the West."
Tags: hindu, buddha, brahmin, caste, varna, shudra, india, samsara, dharma
Abstract This paper is an in-depth examination of the classic Vedic text, "The Mahabharata". The author discusses how and where the codes of moral honor and worldview are perceived in respect to their structure within the Hindu society. The story demonstrates various forms of codes, where the role of honor, and women's places are defined, and how leading a spiritual and moral life is the ultimate goal. The paper includes a detailed outline.
From the paper:
"The worldview as is presented in the classic Hindi epic, "The Mahabharata" of moral and philosophical values still hold true today. "The Mahabharata" is considered to be an ideal source for examining the qualities found within Indian society. A sense of mortality is presented in many aspects of the text as we refer to the societies of the kuru and the Pandu dynasties of India. A Religious/philosophical teaching of Dharma is to live the path of our life that has been chosen for us. The independent elements of the early Indian society displayed in the Vedic text is more than just a story of Arjuna; but key elements to how world view is portrayed with emphasis on the values presented therein and the role of women in the work."
Tags: english, hindu, indan, liturature, mythology, world, gods, hindi
Abstract This paper begins with an introduction describing the magnitude of the Hindu religion. The history of the religion is discussed, emphasizing the importance of the ancient vedas and the Arya people. The wheel of rebirth is also discussed.
From the Paper "It is said that by the first century of the third millennium, approximately one billion people in the world will be Hindus. Apart from the millions of people outside India, who live their lives in accordance with the principles of Hindu thought, around 550 million Hindus live within the frontiers of India. Most of the people of India direct their lives by the Sanatana Dharma, which means eternal law. Within this eternal law, which is usually referred to as Dharma, there are many beliefs that interpret Hindu beliefs on life and death."
Abstract Using anthropologist Michael Allen's article, 'The Hindu View of Women', this essay examines the way in which Hindu beliefs shape and inform both the treatment and conceptualization of women within its religious culture. A detailed discussion of the specific religious beliefs that have influenced the treatment of women is undertaken, and a thorough case study of the Hindu practice of suttee (sati), or widow burning, is used to illustrate Allen's article.
From the Paper "The custom of widow-burning, since first witnessed and recorded by foreigners in 316 B.C.E., has variously produced reactions of indignation, horror, admiration, disgust and pity. Early eyewitness accounts particularly exemplify these reactions and provide a wealth of information not readily available to today's anthropologist due to the decline of suttee since its illegalisation in 1829. Although such accounts are laden with methodological problems and are invariably accounted solely from the time-specific, culture-specific, white, European ?male gaze,? they provide an informative insight into the physical reality of suttee. One such account by the Dutch traveller Stavorinus recounts the acts of a sati on the shore of the Ganges in 1770 (quoted in Weinberger-Thomas, 1999: 97-100). From this account, several important themes emerge which can be used to expose the ideology that underpins the treatment and conceptualisation of women within Hinduism."
Tags: allen, anthropology, dharma, hinduism, ideology, michael, patriarchy, religious, sati
