Abstract This paper describes some of the causes of pervasive developmental disorders diagnosed in children. The paper explains that these causes can include biological factors such as chromosomal and genetic disorders, infections, disease (kernicterus), maternal alcohol abuse during pregnancy as well as psychosocial factors. Particular emphasis is placed on the disorder of autism.
Outline:
Mental Retardation
Autism
From the Paper "About 1% of the general population is affected with mental retardation. Mental retardation is impairment in the development of cognitive and social functioning (APA, 2000). It is not a medical disorder, nor a mental disorder. Mental retardation is a particular state of functioning that begins in childhood and is characterized by limitation in both intelligence and adaptive skills. Mental retardation reflects the "fit" between the capabilities of individuals and the structure and expectations of their environment. Many children with mental retardation improve their condition with support, guidance, and extra academic opportunities, but those who live in impoverish environments may deteriorate. According to the DSM-IV the criteria for mental retardation include three a combination of three of the following:
A. low scores in formal intelligence test (an IQ score of 70 or below)
B. impaired functioning in performing life tasks expected for his/her age in at least two of the following areas: communication, resources, self-care, home living, social/interpersonal skills, use of community resources, functional academic skills, work, leisure, and safety.
c. The onset is before 18 years (DSM, 2000)
"There are different degrees of severity of mental retardation which have to be specified. These degrees will reflect the level of impairment.
317 Mild Mental Retardation - 318.0 Moderate Mental Retardation - 318.1 Severe Mental Retardation - 318.2 Profound Mental Retardation
Tags: capabilities, functioning, impairment, development
This paper outlines Fragile X disorder with a detailed description of the biological cause of the disorder, as well as an explanation of the subsequent communication disorders
Abstract This paper looks at the debilitating disease called Fragile X Disorder. It examines the physical characteristics of people who suffer from this disorder as well as mental and behavioral problems. It focuses on the specific issue of speech impairments causing communication problems.
From the paper:
"Fragile X is the most common inherited cause of developmental and learning disabilities, affecting as many as one person in every 1,000 (Saunders, 1999). Fragile X is a sex-linked genetic disorder and is named so because of a fragile site on the tip of the long arm of the X chromosome where it looks as if a piece of the chromosome is broken off (Saunders, 1999). The gene responsible for the disorder is Fragile Mental Retardation 1 (FMR-1) and can be diagnosed through DNA testing (Saunders, 1999). The FMR-1 gene becomes faulty due to an expansion of three nucleotides, Cytosine-Guanine-Guanine (CGG), which inhibits the production of the FMR protein; the FMR protein is essential for normal brain development (Symons, et al, 2001). "
Abstract This paper discusses post-traumatic stress disorder, a disorder that affects the body's stress chemicals and hormones, and looks at some of its possible causes. The cause of post-traumatic stress disorder is largely unknown but the author attributes genetic, physical, social, and psychological factors in its development. The paper describes the possible symptoms that a patient of post-traumatic stress disorder might have and discusses the available treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder such as psychological counseling and medication.
Outline:
Causes and Development Symptoms
Treatment
References
From the Paper "The National Institute of Mental Health cites the example of a rape victim who testified that for years, she spoke about the rape as if it happened to another woman, being detached to it in terms of feelings. In time, she started to have flashbacks, making her terrified. She also started reliving the rape. She also became very anxious every year at Thanksgiving, around which the rape had occurred."
Abstract This paper discusses the research that has been done on sadistic personality disorder in adolescents or children. The author examines the characteristics of an individual with sadistic personality disorder and discusses the behavior of an individual who has a sadistic personality disorder. The paper shows how biological and environmental influences are the extensive factors that might facilitate sadistic personality disorder.
From the Paper "Piaget has suggested that the infant is born with biological elements that will influence every aspect of development and that these elements will become more significant as the child grows. By the age of 7 the child has supposedly come to a point in development in which he or she must elect to incorporate the concern for others into cognitive processing, or be consumed by personal needs and wants, without consideration for others. In normal children this stage eventually is outgrown. Yet, in those with developmental delays, prolonged existence at this stage may mean that the child will not overcome egocentristic ideologies and concern for others will not develop appropriately."
Abstract This study explores the psychological disorder known as reactive attachment disorder. This problem can occur when early childhood attachment patterns are chronically interrupted. The author describes factors that may contribute to this problem and the actual symptoms of the disorder. Finally, the author states that this study was initiated in order to develop a best practices handbook to increase the awareness of this condition and to provide a helpful approach for therapists when working with children who are or have experienced attachment issues. Includes charts and tables.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
Limitations of the Project
Definition of Terms
Organization of the Project
Chapter Two
Review of the Research on Issues that are Relevant to the Study
Introduction
Attachment Theory and RAD
Diagnosis of Reactive Attachment Disorder Implications of Reactive Attachment Disorder Identifying Effective Treatment for Reactive Attachment Disorder Synthesis of the Review of the Research
Chapter 3: Methodology
Introduction
CHAPTER 4: Product
CHAPTER 5: Conclusion
From the Paper " When early childhood attachment patterns are chronically interrupted, children may develop reactive attachment disorder; unfortunately, RAD remains a widely misunderstood and under-diagnosed disorder (Doggett, Renfro-Michel & Sheperis, 2003). While studies have shown time and again that some children who experience early disruptions in the attachment process are able to cope with such events, others appear to be unable to recover, such as with children suffering from reactive attachment disorder. The symptoms of RAD vary from child to child, of course, but studies have found that a lack of ability to give and receive affection, cruelty to others especially pets, abnormalities in eye contact and speech patterns, lying and stealing, lack of long-term friends, and extreme control problems are common (Flanagan, 1999). Complicating the problem for clinicians are the number of behavioral disorders that can manifest during these early years that may mimic the symptoms of reactive attachment disorder, and the diagnosis of RAD is made only when there are no other likely causes for the lack of social responsiveness, such as mental retardation (Flanagan, 1999)."
Abstract This paper examines the diagnosis made for adolescents who experience conduct disorder and major depressive disorder . The author examines how these two disorders effect adolescents and the differences between the above diagnosis for adults and children. In addition the author looks at the trend for African-American youth to be teacher-reported for externalized symptoms more than Euro-American youth and the risk of substance abuse that youth who suffer from co-morbid conduct disorder and depression face.
From the Paper "Distinguishing between conduct disorder and major depressive disorder in the assessment of adolescent patients has proved to be a difficult task for clinicians (Meller & Borchardt, 1996; Herkov & Myers, 1996). While current literature has found that the two diagnoses are often comorbid, it appears that major depressive disorder may be under diagnosed, in part because the symptoms of conduct disorder tend to veil the symptoms of depression (Herkov & Myers, 1996; Swearer, 1998; Reinecke, 1995). There is evidence that adolescents express disorders differently than adults, and that "acting out" behaviors that are associated with conduct disorder may be a way for adolescents to express their depressive feelings (Reinecke, 1995). This under diagnosis of depression in adolescents is a serious problem because of the potential for improper treatment for the patient (Herkov & Myers, 1996). Therefore, it is of the utmost importance that clinicians are aware of the difficulties in discriminating between the two disorders."
Tags: disease, children, adolescents, development, mental, health
Abstract Research into these behavioral disorders suggests that brain chemistry and genetics are responsible for predisposition to the conditions, with environmental aspects also a factor. This paper examines the biological approach looking for the definite genetic cause and the child development approach looking at the impact of the environment. Each of these approaches looks at the problem with a different focus and with each approach comes a different understanding of the nature of behavioral conditions in children.
From the Paper "Cognitive development is described by Jean Piaget's four stages theory. Piaget describes four stages that every child develops through, where in each stage the child thinks differently, acquiring new thinking skills with every stage. These stages are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. In the sensorimotor period a child's behavior is determined by looking, seeing and feeling, rather than thinking. In the preoperational period children lack the ability to think logically, they assume their experience is the same as everyone else's, they are unable to rearrange their thoughts and they mix up cause and effect. "
Abstract This paper states that PTSD is an anxiety disorder, which has its origins in the psychological reactions to a traumatic event, perceived by the individual as being traumatic. The paper says that, while PTSD can occur at any age, younger people are especially susceptible because they have developed fewer strategies for coping with severe stress and that the future psychological development of adolescent PTSD victims is jeopardized by the condition. The author concludes that a multi-faceted treatment program, administered as soon as the trauma is identified, is the best response to prevent and repair the harm to the individual.
From the Paper "Diagnosis is complex; a range of criteria must be present in order to diagnose PTSD accurately. Early intervention can help to mediate the impact of trauma, as can factors in the individual's life, including personal resilience and social support. Trauma can also be aggravated by the presence of other stressors and the context in which the trauma occurs, and effective treatment must address all of the factors surrounding the trauma."
Abstract The paper reveals that the problem of ADHD is one that is complex and involves numerous neurological, psychological and sociological issues. The paper discusses how ADHD affects the learning and development of a child and looks at the problems in identifying and treating ADHD. The paper concludes that a comprehensive solution to this disorder necessitates the integration and cooperation of medical and educational authorities, schools and parents.
From the Paper "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is a disorder that has received increasing attention over the past few years. This is particularly the case with regard to child development and the complex way that this disorder can impact on this important aspect. Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder often show low levels of academic performance and are easily distracted in the classroom or during the learning process. In more detail ADHD is characterized by"... a persistent pattern of behavioral symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity ....Children showing behaviors that are characteristics of ADHD have been found to be highly "at-risk" for maladaptive educational and social outcomes. " ( Jimerson S.)"
Abstract This paper discusses social skills training programs within schools that are implemented in order to combat behavioral disorders among children. The paper specifically focuses on the most common behavioral disorder among children, which is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It looks at the role of prevention intervention programs for children who have these behavioral disorders.
From the Paper "The role of prevention interventions with children who have behavioral disorders can not be stressed enough. It is of the utmost importance that attention be focused on ensuring that behavior disorders among children do not develop into anti-social behavior later on. Furthermore, children with behavior disorders that exhibit aggressive and oppositional behavior are at risk for the development of serious anti-social behavior that can persist into adulthood. Bauer and Webster-Stratton (2006) determined that training programs for parents are an effective means of promoting positive parenting and strategies for discipline, as well as enhance the child's social skills, emotional self-regulation, and ability to solve problems. These researchers also suggested that family doctors can play a role in prevention by practicing developmental surveillance of patients with behavior disorders in order to prevent disruptive behavior problems, address the concerns of parents, and nurture the healthy development of the children's social and emotional competency."
Abstract In this article, the writer presents a research proposal investigating the attachment process in eating disorders, particularly among college women. The writer examines the number of college women with subclinical eating disorders in contrast to those with full-blown eating disorders. This work includes background information on attachment theory and processes in general and in eating disorders. This work focuses on the father-daughter attachment processes and the roles of depression and self-esteem.
Outline:
Objective
Introduction
Literature Review
Bibliography
From the Paper "It has been widely acknowledged among clinical therapists that healthy development of self-esteem requires certain basic requirements be met first such as the requirement of safety and security and these two components of the individual's personality are believed by theorists to develop during infanthood and to be an evolving developmental function of the individual. This development follows through several stages in the individual's development until the final stage in late adolescence. The individual who is in the stage of late adolescence is the individual who is beginning to enter a stage of healthy psychological separation from their parents, that is if the individual is developing according to normal development for this age individual. Parental attachments which have not been appropriately formed during the individuals infant age, childhood, adolescence, and late adolescence result in certain psychological disorders in individuals which develop as 'coping mechanisms' as a method used by the individual in dealing with underlying issues. Failure to have a healthy attachment to the father for the young woman in college is likely to result in depression, a poor-self image, low self-confidence, and result as well in the young woman having great difficulty with autonomous independence and self-direction."
Abstract This paper studies the correlation between media exposure and resulting body image disturbance/eating disorder symptoms in the light of a recent research. It examines the impact and presents some latest developments in research findings in this area especially the concept of internationalization, which was largely ignored in earlier studies on the subject.
From the Paper "In a media-saturated culture like the one we have in the United States, the influence of media-promoted images on our perception of what is good, healthy, beautiful and desirable has often been discussed and in most cases vehemently criticized. Research indicates that female adolescents are increasingly being subjected to unhealthy body images in print and electronic media resulting in the rise of eating disorders cases. With media presenting us with images of super-thin women who are projected as symbols of success, eating disorders are unarguably on the rise among young women. This is the result of distorted body image or body image disturbance that occurs when people, both men and women, overestimate their body size and harbor chronic thoughts about dieting, weight loss and consumption of fat. Body image distortion leads to unhealthy dietary habits where people start consuming less food with lower nutritional value and as the result suffer from eating disorders including bulimia and anorexia nervosa."
Abstract This paper studies the developmentdisorder of autism in children and sheds light on some important research in this area. The writer explores the statistics that reveal that autism is now on the rise among children in the United States with as many as 250,000 children suffering from this condition.
From the Paper "Autism is a serious developmental disorder in which children often do not follow the correct development milestones and thus suffer form various forms of speech and cognitive defects. There are usually more than one symptoms of the disorder and the conditions can vary from person to person in its intensity and gravity but most commonly such children appear to exist in some isolated world. For reasons that appear completely baffling to researchers and scientist, Autistic children are usually not capable of understanding what the other person wants them to do; in short they cannot follow instructions correctly. Some children are often seen following a rather strange pattern of repetitive actions, such as banging their head or rocking back and forth. But it has been found that there are some less serious forms of autism too in which children usually do not engage in such activities but still their behavior cannot be termed as normal."
Tags: autistic, children, development, disorder, language, problem, speech, abnormal, social
Abstract This paper discusses some of the varied and abundant literature that exists regarding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The paper discusses the conclusions from many of the studies and how they are, at least in some cases, seen as very controversial, and are sparking a large amount of scholarly debate over the correct methods of addressing such a prevalent problem.
From the Paper "Other studies look to treat not just the physical ailments, disabilities or anomalies of ADHD but look to discover how treatments used to treat other disorders can affect those with ADHD if they were treated with them. One study showed the effects of behavioral therapy on autistic children and concluded, "Results suggest that behavioral treatment was effective for children with autism in the study" (Eikeseth, Smith, Jahr, Eldivik, 2007, p. 264). This leads to the question of whether such treatments can also assist those who are affected by ADHD. This particular study could be of interest because it dealt with such young subjects (ages 4-7) and it showed excellent results. If these same type of treatments were available for individuals with ADHD, and they worked as well, it would seem that implementation of this type of treatment would be beneficial to society, just like a study on a community's water source might also be beneficial."
Abstract This paper presents a general overview and discussion of the psychological disorders known as Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Disorder. The paper presents definitions of both disorders and discusses several aspects associated with these disorders including diagnosis, prevalence, general etiology, risk factors, genetic and biological causes, symptoms of each disorder and need for interventions.
From the Paper "This research paper presents conduct disorder and antisocial disorder. Related to conduct disorder the following are discussed: definition, diagnosis, prevalence, general etiology and risk factors, genetic and biological causes and risk factors, disorder onset as a risk factor, familial and racial risk factors, childhood risk behaviors, developmental progression, course and consequences and assessment, treatment and forensic issues. Related to antisocial disorder the following are discussed: definition, diagnosis, prevalence, general etiology and risk factors, genetic and biological causes and risk factors..."
