Abstract
This paper is a complete description of the theory of deterrence and crime. Both aspects of the deterrence issue are examined in depth visa via current theories in criminology. This paper presents an extensive review by way of a research study. This paper then draws its conclusions with respect to the efficacy of the theory of deterrence as well.

From the Paper
"In the May 1993 issue of the Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Stafford and Warr introduced the re-conceptualized deterrence theory by explaining that general and specific deterrence are both functions of crime. Both of these sociologists presented the argument that there is no reason to have multiple theories for general and specific deterrence. Instead they proposed the idea that a single theory is possible that centers on two levels; namely, indirect experiences involving legal punishment and punishment avoidance; and direct experiences with legal punishment and avoidance (Stafford & Warr, 1993). They furthered their argument by stating that general deterrence includes the knowledge of criminal activity performed by others as well as the consequences or absence of consequences from the specified criminal activity."

Tags:criminology, deterrence, crime

Abstract
This paper discusses the opinions of many after September 11th, that the present form of terrorism has made classical deterrence theory outdated. According to the paper transnational terrorism has totally dented conventional wisdom, which had dictated proceedings during the cold war. Similarly, rogue states all over the world, in general, and the Middle East and South Asia, in particular, have created a great deal of tension in Washington. The paper further discusses how the role of the American rival states, such as, North Korea and China and the functions and limitations of the UN Security Council have completely transformed the security structure of the sole hyper power of the world. This paper tries to elucidate the best possible deterrence strategy the United States should pursue after the cold war.

Outline:
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Justification of the Study
Research Design and Methodology
Collection of Data
Data Analysis and Search Tactics
Limitations of the Study
Part 2
Transnational Terrorism
The Rogue and the Rival States
The U.N. Security Council
Conclusion of This Section
Part 3
Literature Review
Classical Deterrence Theory
The End of Cold War deterrence
A New Justification
Conclusion of This Section
Part 4
The First Case Study: The Strategic Triangle (US/China/Russia)
The Sino-Russo Partnership
The US-Russian Labyrinth: A Subtle Relationship
The Source for Cooperation and Divergence
Effect of the End of Cold War
Conclusion of This Section
The Second Case Study: Deterring North Korea
US Policy on the Korean Peninsula Since 1945
The Future of the U.S. Foreign Policy on the Korean Peninsula
The Status Quo Option
The Hard-Line Option
Compromise
Early Bush Administration Policy
Conclusion
The third Case Study: Transnational Terrorism
Counter-terrorism in a Global Society
Conclusion
Part 5
Observation and Conclusion
Correcting the Strategic Gaps in the U.S. Approach to Homeland Defense Concentrating Less on Who is Responsible and More on What They Ought to be Responsible of
Planning for Higher-Probability, Lower-Consequence, and Lower-Probability, Higher-Consequence Events

From the Paper
"At the threat of generalization, one could make a case that US relations with China were greatly powered by two issues: the vicissitudes in the Sino-Russo association and--the more significant of the two--the Taiwan problem. For 30 years following the "People's Republic of China" (PRC) emergence in 1949, the United States carried on to acknowledge the adversary Chinese government (the Republic of China, or ROC) that had moved to Taiwan after trailing behind the civil conflict on the mainland. The path to ultimate US standardization with the PRC in 1979 was cemented by US President Richard Nixon, whose striking plan was to build a coalition with China--which was, at that time, in conflict with the Soviet Union--in an effort to oppose the increasing Soviet threat. However the United States, in spite of everything, maintains informal relations with the Republic of China. Certainly, under the "Taiwan Relations Act," a piece of internal US legislation, Washington is under a duty to defend Taiwan's safety and therefore carry on arms sales to the isle .
Washington's Taiwan association has bedeviled its dealings with the Republic of China from this time onwards, even more so following 1988 when Taiwan's political leadership demonstrated growing inclinations in the direction of a separatist route outside the One China state-of-affairs. All through a brief disagreement amid mainland China and Taiwan in 1996, the United States sent off two naval battle factions to the Taiwan channel to demonstrate moral cooperation for Taiwan (and maybe to gratify President Clinton's congressional associates). An unintentional war with China was hardly prevented only with the sensible removal of the US carrier Independence, at the same time as, the second carrier, the Nimitz, was still on its route as of the Mediterranean Sea. The narrow escape drove home the Republic of China's sincerity in relation to Taiwan to the Clinton management, forcing it to assume a soul-searching evaluation of Sino-US strategy. The concluding decision for Clinton's "thoroughgoing" engagement policy concerning the Chinese, which he practiced all through his second presidential tenure, was to prevent himself from being heaved into an unintentional war with China on behalf of Taiwan ."

Tags:political, legal, terror, strategies, foreign, policy, mass, destruction, explosives, chemical, nuclear, biological, weapons

Abstract
This paper outlines a study employing a panel of U.S. state-level data over the year 1977 to 2006 to estimate the deterrent effect of capital punishment - specifically the number of executions compared to the murder rate per year. The states studied are ones that currently allow capital punishment for violent crimes. The data collected is not used in an attempt to explain why capital punishment could be a deterrent to murder rates; rather, the data is used to see if there is a statistical correlation between the number of executions per year and the number of murders per year. The results of this study indicate that a correlation does exist between the number of executions and the number of murders per year, with a general decrease of murder rates existing alongside the increasing number of executions. This paper does not take into account public opinion on capital punishment, nor is this study performed in an in-depth manner that would determine if the citizens of these particular states are even informed of the number of executions that occur. This paper contains illustrative charts and graphs.

Outline:
Introduction
Literature Review Data and Methods
Data Sampling Procedure
Analysis Plan
Reliability and Validity Issues
Human Analysis Plan
Results
References

From the Paper
"This research will be limited to the overall correlation between capital punishment and homicide rates from 1977 to 2005, and will not include extraneous factors that have been used in other research papers, such as execution announcements and their effect, death row waiting time, etc. The purpose behind this is to simply create a sheer statistical data sheet to explore the nationwide correlation between the two main factors of executions and homicide rates. This is an exploratory research paper; as such, the researcher will not presume to attempt to explain why the correlation actually exists."

Tags:capital, punishment, injustice, state-sanctioned, murder

Abstract
The paper reveals that Canada abolished capital punishment in 1976, and continued to enjoy a relatively low murder rate. The paper reviews the statistical evidence as well as the arguments in favour of the continued ban. The purpose of punishment is used to explain the growing public sentiment in favour of reinstituting capital punishment by a near plurality.

Tags:capital, punishment, deterrence

From the Paper
"Contemporary terrorist threats have raised new alarms among deterrence theorists. The old strategy of deterrence, which had long been firmly entrenched in the thinking of international conflict resolution, may not work with many of these terrorists. They sometimes act like lunatics, it is said. They sometimes appear to like violence, it is feared. They are so irrational, so bent on confrontation, that they may fail to make any prudent calculation of the retaliatory destruction they will face if they launch an attack. They may be, in the language of deterrence theorists, "undeterrable threats."

This research examines the applicability and effectiveness of traditional deterrence theory,... . Traditional deterrence theory will be analyzed for its explanatory power for ... "

Abstract
This paper is a dissertation research proposal that outlines assessments of the effect of Pennsylvania's juvenile transfer law on juvenile violent crime, and proposes a time series analysis to answer the research questions. The paper explains that although the execution of juveniles who committed their crimes under age 18 now is prohibited, there are still a number of unresolved and controversial issues with respect to the treatment of juveniles under the law. A few examples of these issues given include the age at which juveniles should be held legally accountable for their behavior; the age at which, and conditions under which, their degree of accountability should be likened to that of an adult; and whether age should be a consideration (a mitigating factor) in the punishment of juveniles in adult court. This paper contains a list of thematic categories, an introductory letter to interviewees, a consent form, and interview protocol for law enforcement officers.

Table of Contents:
Chapter 1 Introduction
Past Literature
Present Study
Historical and Legal Contexts of Juvenile Transfer
Evolution of Juvenile Justice
Juvenile Institutions
Juvenile Courts
Juvenile Crime Rates and the Youth Violence Epidemic
Policy Responses to Violent Juvenile Crime Rates
The Juvenile Transfer Response
Pennsylvania's Transfer Legislation
3 Predictors of Transfer and Implications Thereafter
Predictors of Transfer: Offender and Offense Characteristics
The Criminal Justice Process and Implications of Juvenile Transfer
Pre-trial or Pre-dispositional Release
Case Processing Time
Conviction
Sentencing
Summary
Theories of Juvenile Behavior and Treatment
Psychological Theories of Juvenile Offending
Deterrence Theory
The Classical School of Criminology
Evolution of Deterrence Theory
Chapter 5
Specific Deterrence
General Deterrence
Conclusion
Methodology
Quantitative Methodology
Qualitative Methodology
Content Analysis
Semi-Structured Interviews
Analytic Strategy
References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D

From the Paper
"In recent decades, primarily in the early to mid-1990s, states made it much easier for accused juvenile offenders to be tried in adult court. Rather than protection of other youth, however, the modern transfer movement appeared to be motivated by desires for increased accountability, retribution, general and specific deterrence, and longer periods of incapacitation (Bishop, 2000; Fagan et al., 1987; Feld, 1998; Mears, 2003; Mears & Feld, 2000; Myers, 2003a; Redding, 2003; Sanborn, 1994; Singer, 1996a; Snyder & Sickmund, 1999; Thomas & Bilchik, 1981). These sentencing philosophies were not absent in the earlier evolution of the juvenile court. In fact, the promotion of judicial waiver, particularly during the 1920s and 1930s, was a response to the criticism that juvenile courts coddled offenders (Myers, 2005). Importantly, however, the advocacy and practice of transferring juveniles to adult court was largely limited to rare cases of very serious offending."

Tags:justice, transfer, general, deterrence, theory

Abstract
Deterrence is the effort to avoid war by creating such strength on one side of the conflict that the other side does not challenge, and so peace is maintained. The various ways of attempting deterrence, and at different times, we have characterized in different terms.

From the Paper
"INTRODUCTION

Deterrence is the effort to avoid war by creating such strength on one side of the conflict that the other side does not challenge, and so peace is maintained. The various ways of attempting deterrence, and at different times, we have characterized in different terms. Sometimes we have been successful in deterring aggression and in preventing war, while perhaps just as often we have failed to deter as desired and have become embroiled in a war we tried to prevent. Three of the failures of this century are seen in the onset of World War II, the Korean War, and Serbia. Three successes can be seen in the Cold War, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the threat that China would attack Taiwan."

Abstract
This paper examines how, in the last quarter century, the U.S. has experienced a drop in both crime rates and arrest rates and how many criminologists have speculated on the reasons for this drop in crime. It shows how Nobel Prize winner, Gary Becker, in his work, ?Crime and Punishment, An Economic Approach,? was the first economist to explain the theory of deterrence as a function of econometrics and how, according to Becker, if the punishment costs the criminal more than the crime benefits the criminal, then the criminal will rationally be deterred from committing the crime. It looks at how, although the Uniform Crime Report and the National Crime Victims Survey support Becker?s economic model of crime, scientists have struggled to prove Becker?s model with sound, empirical research.

From the Paper
"The deterrence/incapacitation argument is important for legislation such as "three strikes you're out? in which after three convictions a prisoner receives automatic jail time. If deterrence is not a key factor, the threat of incapacitation does not work. By definition, incapacitation is a by-product of deterrence. Without incapacitation, deterrence would not be a workable theory. Levitt concludes in his paper, that incapacitation may imprison the majority of people who would commit crimes no matter what, however, incapacitation without deterrence may make others more likely to commit crimes, who otherwise may have been deterred (Levitt, 370) increasing rather than decreasing arrest rates."

Tags:incapacitation, incarceration, punishment, criminal, arrest

Abstract
This paper presents both sides of the argument that the death penalty acts as a deterrent to crime, especially murder. The author, however, does lean more toward supporting capital punishment. Several historical examples are given that show how crime increased when the death penalty was abolished in the United States, compared to lower murder rates when it was reintroduced. The author also cites how violent crime decreased when the death penalty was enacted in other countries and cultures, most notably colonial India. The paper concludes by raising questions related to morality.

Introduction
Death Penalty Deterrence
Murderers Inhabit Death Row
Conclusion

From the Paper
"It has been shown that during this period of the abolished form of penalty, murder rates more than doubled across the country. For those who are unconditional supporters of the death penalty, this proof of its necessity is considered to be an excellent aspect in the cases built against those with the intent to harm America and its citizens. Indeed, permanently re-implementing capital punishment is in the hands of the people, yet many voices seem to be raised against it. "

Tags:death row, murder, criminal justice system, morality

Abstract
This paper discusses how the death penalty continues to be a highly controversial issue with most Americans and its deterrent effect has still not been absolutely determined. This paper concludes that it is clear that the death penalty does serve society quite well under certain circumstances, but in reality, society must begin to understand the reasons why people commit violent crimes and determine how to change a person's violent tendencies which in the end will make the death penalty unnecessary.

From the Paper
"One of the most controversial issues in today's America has to do with the question as to whether or not the death penalty is a deterrent to crime. Many of those that support the death penalty argue that execution, whether by lethal injection, the electric chair or hanging, is the most suitable penalty for persons who have committed atrocious crimes like first-degree murder, rape or the murder of a child. The main contention for these supporters is that the convicted person deserves punishment that is comparable to the crime; in addition, supporters of the death penalty argue that such an action demonstrates society's adherence to moral principles. According to Robert Bidinotto, such crimes as premeditated murder "is a crime in a class by itself," for it "negates the highest moral end of a civil society," being human life (156)."

Tags:violent, crime, ethics, capital, punishment