Abstract Through a review of several historical legal cases, this paper examines the gradual desegregation of schools that took place in the United States. The paper highlights the fallacy of the notion of "separate but equal" and points out that educational equality is foundational to the establishment of a culture that interacts in a meaningful way and that desegregation is the only way such equality might be achieved.
From the Paper "In the first half of the twentieth century, many major obstacles faced races of what centuries of popular history informed the American population were inferior races, and those at the bottom of the social scale were African American's the ancestors of slaves. (Allport 84-85) This was reflected almost universally in the culture, but nowhere more blatantly than in the separate but "equal" education system. (Allport 84-85) It was nowhere near equal with countless examples of inferiority throughout. The determining source of much of the fear and ignorance was and to some degree still is based on the ideas of a simple fear of the unknown or different. Through continued segregation the 'other' can still be seen as inferior as few opportunities were offered for people to have candid exposure to anything other than the dominant culture."
Tags: suspicion hatred rumors misunderstandings financial dominant salvation protection plessy v. ferguson brown v. board of education of topeka, kansas
Abstract This paper explains that the speaker in Martin Espada's poem "Sleeping on the Bus" is paying tribute to the forefathers of the human rights movement by showing the many hardships they had to overcome. The author points out that the main theme of the poem is to show how easily the people of today forget the sacrifices that were made to create the freedoms now enjoyed and how there is still work to be done. The paper relates that the repeating rhetorical question "how we" emphasizes the speaker's goal of making the reader strongly remember the tough long road of desegregation. The paper analyzes each stanza of the poem.
From the Paper "The poem explicates how a decade before the demonstrations in Alabama, few held true to their convictions out of fear of the pure power that the conservative majority had over the police and government "no witness spoke to cameras." When a "brown skinned man in Army uniform" made the smallest snicker in disbelief regarding the "custom of the backseat" he was dragged from the bus by the police. Without due process, the "brown skinned" man was put in jail for a week, while the "magistrate" went right back to bed feeling no remorse and sleeping soundly."
Abstract The paper examines the critical role that education, or the lack of it, played in the creation and perpetuation of a system of race-based oppression in America. The paper explains that by denying African Americans access to a quality education, whites were able to ensure the continued availability and subservience of a poor working-class. The paper further explains that the inferior educational facilities implied that blacks were intellectually inferior to whites, a message that was internalized by the majority of the white community, and many members of the black community. The paper therefore illustrates how the desegregation of schools was an important goal in the Civil Rights Movement, because of the tangible and symbolic roles that education played in the subjugation of the black community. The paper includes an annotated bibliography.
Outline:
Introduction
Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper "To truly understand the important role that school desegregation played in the Civil Rights Movement, one first has to understand the critical role that education, or the lack thereof, played in the creation and perpetuation of a system of race-based oppression in America. First, one must understand that the trappings of a formal education, such as instruction in reading and writing skills, is something that was restricted to the upper class for thousands of years. In fact, it is only within the last few hundred years that a formal education has become available to members of society, at large. Educational gains have been linked to a decrease in disparity between higher and lower social class groups and the existence of a burgeoning middle class. Moreover, the issues surrounding education and social class become more complex when one introduces in the idea of slavery and the ownership of human beings; education may make a slave a more efficient and profitable worker, but education is also linked to the desire for freedom."
This paper discusses that the real heroes of the civil rights movement were the children and that desegregation in the schools is in danger of being overturned.
Abstract This paper reviews the classic school segregation cases: Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, the "Little Rock Nine" at Arkansas' Central High School and six-year old Ruby Bridges, the first black student to be admitted to the William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans, after the Supreme Court ruled to integrate the public schools. The author is concerned that today desegregation is facing serious problems: The proportion of blacks in black-majority schools is on the rise and desegregation orders have been lifted in many cities, resulting in the halting of court-supervised school integration.
From the Paper "Perhaps the best-known test of desegregation in practice was undertaken by the "Little Rock Nine" -- the nine black pupils who integrated Arkansas' Central High School for the first time in 1957. Greeted by a howling mob -- and the 101st Airborne sent in by President Dwight Eisenhower -- the students confronted a concentrated and vicious campaign to drive them from the school. They decided to stay, however, and, eventually prevailed, "leaving an indelible mark on the time and the times" ."
Abstract This paper is is on the effects of segregation vs. desegregation in black businesses in New York . It includes references to contrasts on the segregation of black business compared to the desegregation that ended in 1965 New York State.
Abstract This paper discusses the book "After Brown" by Charles T. Clotfelter, noting how the author tells the story of the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education and its aftermath. It further suggests that many of the gains made early were later lost and that the underlying dedication to achieving school desegregation gave way later to efforts by many whites to undercut such gains and to separate their children from the public school system entirely or to reduce the effects of desegregation through white flight, battles against busing, and the elevation of the neighborhood school as a goal.
From the Paper "In the book 'After Brown', Clotfelter (2004) tells the story of the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education and its aftermath, suggesting that many of the gains made early were later lost and that the underlying dedication to achieving school desegregation gave way later to efforts by many whites to undercut such gains and to separate their children from the public school system entirely or to reduce the effects of desegregation through white flight, battles against busing, and the elevation of the neighborhood school as a goal. The decision in the 1954 court case was one of several forces at work in the early 1950s and into the 1960s that caused the Civil Rights Movement to develop. This major decision was supposed to be implemented "with all deliberate speed," according to the decision itself. "
Abstract The paper discusses how the Brown vs. Board of Education ruling that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal" had been intended to dramatically change the social and political dynamics of American society. The paper looks at the failure of the Brown ruling to make inroads into the social fabric of America and shows that although the ruling had been a historic moment in American history, cowardice and hypocrisy has helped in the unsuccessful implementation of desegregation. The paper asserts that the government needs to step up its effort to desegregate not only the American education system, but also other areas of the social and political system.
Outline:
The Immediate Aftermath of the Supreme Court's Decision
The Impact of the Case
Conclusion
From the Paper "Almost a year and a half before Dwight D. Eisenhower had been elected as the American President, a pioneering and unprecedented ruling had been passed by a unanimous Supreme Court judiciary bench. This ruling, which had been lead by Chief Justice Earl Warren, had been intended to dramatically change the social and political dynamics of the American society. The Chief Justice speaking for the Supreme Court asserted, "We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate-but-equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal (Charles, 2004).""
Tags: separation, judiciary, desegregation, society
History of federal cases dealing with desegregation of publicly-supported higher education in the Deep South. Focus on Ayers/Fordice cases in Mississippi.
4,950 words (approx. 19.8 pages), 41 sources, 2001, $ 135.95
From the Paper "This legal research paper discusses the history of the federal cases dealing with desegregation of publicly-supported higher education in the Deep South, primarily the Ayers/Fordice cases in federal courts in Mississippi and the appeals and subsequent proceedings therefrom cited below, and their implications for the continued existence and functioning of historically black universities (HBUs), sometimes referred to as historically black institutions (HBIs) or historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs).
After the Civil War, HBIs served a unique and critical function in educating young blacks (African-Americans) in the Southern states, but they were severely handicapped by and served as an integral part of a pattern of legally-sanctioned ..."
Abstract This paper examines the issue of gender and racial discrimination in sport both at college as well as professional level. It attempts to dispel the myths regarding women equality and meritocracy in sports, such that women earn through professional as well as college sports as much as their male counterparts. It examines the struggles involving women recognition in sports through the history of basketball which evolved in 1891 but only allowed women players in 1971 and the differences in women participation in college sports and professional sports. The paper also outlines the racial desegregation of college and professional sports, bringing out the similarities and the differences to that of gender bias.
From the Paper "Though women face various challenges in the name of discrimination in sports oriented activities and career advancements, women in college sports face less resistance due to the fact that at college level, friendships and relationships are more sound and meaningful than at a professional level where shrewd politics dominate the sports scenario and extreme resistance is faced by women who are professional athletes. Moreover, in college sports, due to combined activities, women get more or less the same facilities and coaching aid that their male friends receive. Alternately, women athletes on a professional level are struggling hard to receive better or equal facilities than men athletes."
This paper argues against the conclusions of Gary Orfield's book ?Dismantling Desegregation?, that segregation is slowly becoming the norm again in many communities.
Abstract This paper explains that Orfield is making an argument for entitlement: All students are entitled to the same educational opportunities and that measures must be taken to ensure that children, especially black children, are not forsaken these opportunities. The author feels that Orfield fails to make the distinction between racial segregation and the social or market forces that compel poor blacks to live in the same neighborhood. The author cites that in the two cases of Grutter vs. Bollinger and Gratz vs. Bollinger, the Supreme Court questioned the very notion that the government should allow state-funded institutions to maintain race-based methods of selection to insure the diversity of an applicant pool.
From the Paper "Orfield is quick to demonize Nixon, Reagan, and Bush, who are all coincidentally Republican conservatives, for trying to turn back the clock on desegregation. Orfield finally does refer to bussing in the context of the Green decision and the Keyes and Swann decision, he calls it ?student transportation as a means for integration.? (pg. 6) Because most students of this phenomenon know the process as ?bussing,? one can assume that his failure to use this term is deliberate. However, we are left unsure as to whether his deliberate omission of the term is due to a possible negative connotation of the word, or a general distaste for clich?s. To omit the word ?bussing,? given its negative connotation in the eyes of those that have live with and experienced it, would be to engage in a shrewd charade of semantic manipulation. We are inclined to argue in favor of objectivity in that he also eschews the phrase ?turn back the clock.? He cleverly sidesteps this one by naming the chapter ?Turning Back to Desegregation,? leaving out the beloved clock."
This paper reviews the book "Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America" by Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, written in 1967, at the height of the civil rights movement.
Abstract This paper explains the various aspects of the need for empowering the African-American people. The author points out that the most important argument in the book is that African-Americans need to develop a particular type of consciousness in order for black liberation to occur, which Carmichael and Hamilton refer to as "Black Power". The paper relates that the book states that integration (or desegregation) is not an adequate solution to the problem of oppression because it is based on the assumption that there is nothing of value in the black community and it merely results in integrating 'acceptable' black people into the middle-class white community.
From the Paper "Although "Black Power" was written in the late 1960s, the ideas contained in the book are still, for the most part, applicable in the present day. Obviously, African Americans have not yet attained full equality with the whites in American society. The views expressed by Carmichael and Hamilton are well stated, and thus their arguments are convincing. In addition, it is important to note that the way to liberation from oppression, according to "Black Power", is not "radical" per se, although it requires a great deal of courage and determination on the part of the black people themselves."
Abstract The paper will examine the reasons why during the time of the American Civil Rights Movement, African-American religious integrity was challenged through segregation, racism, church participation and religion. It also looks at the possible solutions to segregation, specifically the changes made by Martin Luther King Jr. The first section of the paper explains segregation in a Biblical, sociological and ethical context. It examines religious limitations that were place on the African-American society, as well as the violence directed at it. Finally, the paper questions why the church was reluctant to participate in desegregation.
From the Paper "How is segregation justified through the Bible? It is not when it is motivated by hatred. The story of Noah's son has nothing to do with race and the curse of Babel was for sin. The Bible separates people by faith and believer. Race, national origin, wealth, and education are not scriptural and mock Christ and his love for all people. Jesus wants us to come to him and when churches refuse to allow Christian blacks to worship in their church, it becomes a serious problem in our country's psyche and Jesus' sacrifices. This issue becomes more alarming through denying blacks the right to vote, ending discrimination in public places, the right to free association with any man, equal enforcement laws and adequate education. Blacks at this time did not receive these rights and were seen as dumb and dishonest. The affects of slavery help salvage the attitude and the progression of blacks a problem as they saw whites as cruel, dishonest and selfish."
Abstract This paper maintains that, although historians argue that resistance rhetoric was highly entwined with anti-Communist sentiment in the context of the history of Southern desegregation, this correlation appears to be more academic than realistic. The paper further maintains that anti-Communism was used as a false rhetoric to shift the conversation away from the real issue, the difficulty southerners had with changing their way of life. The paper then concludes that, when most southerners realized that change was inevitable, they engaged in the rhetoric of gradualism backed by various delay tactics and token efforts at integration.
From the Paper "To the credit of Webb (2005), he acknowledges that the use of Cold War themes in resistance rhetoric needs to be understood beyond the concurrent development of the Cold War and the resistance movement. He asserts that southerners needed a different way to depict a regional struggle against segregation and to remove the issue of race from the debate. Therefore, they leveraged the Cold War to represent their opposition as a national struggle against a foreign enemy."
Tags: anti-communist, fear of change, parallel, cause and effect relationship, gradualism
Abstract This paper outline the political career of Senator Strom Thurmond and comments on some of the ways in which he influenced southern politics.
From the Paper "Strom Thurmond, born in Edgefield, South Carolina in 1902, has held his Senate seat longer than any other senator in history. His views and tactics are either loved or hated; rarely is there a middle ground. To some, he's the champion of the "Southern Way", to others, he's a white supremacist in "league with the Devil himself". "
Examines major examples of racial bias in 1940s & legal, political & ethical pressures leading to President Truman's 1948 order to desegregate armed forces.
3,600 words (approx. 14.4 pages), 7 sources, 1997, $ 127.95
From the Paper "DESEGREGATION OF THE UNITED STATES ARMED FORCES
Introduction
The desegregation of the United States armed forces was directed by Executive Order No. 9981 issued by President Harry S. Truman on 26 July 1948. Harry Truman, however, was not a good fairy and Executive Order No. 9981 was not a magic wand. The desegregation of the armed forces in the United States did not occur in an instant. In fact, years were to pass before widespread integration, the obverse side of the coin on which segregation is the reverse, was the rule in the armed forces.
The issuance of Executive Order No. 9981, as was true of the pressures for the desegregation of the armed forces in the United States, did not occur in political and social vacuums. Each was the product of events and environments that long pre-dated.."
