Abstract
This paper contends that the skyrocketing number of prescriptions for anti-depressants recently has caused some to worry that patients, such as rape victims, who could benefit from the addition of medication in their recovery, might not be able to get the much-needed medicine.

From the Paper
"The recent FDA decision regarding SSRI's (Selective Seratonin Reuptake Inhibitors) has caused the medical community to scale down anti-depressant prescriptions in recent months. This project in intended to shed light on the growing problem of over-prescribing anti-depressants and the effects that ultimately could prevent rape survivors from receiving the much needed medications they need for recovery."

Tags:anti, celexa, depressants, neuroreceptors, prescriptions, prozac, seratonin, ssri, survivors, zoloft

Abstract
This paper looks at the main biological theory of depression, which is known as the monoamine-deficiency hypothesis. The paper first discusses the controversy surrounding anti-depressant medications and the effect of serotonin on the brain and highlights the difficulty in proving the efficacy of these drugs. The paper then looks at cognitive theories of depression, with a focus on Aaron Beck's cognitive model, and notes the studies that support and validate this theory. The paper points out that no single theory about such a complex phenomenon as depression can be considered 'complete'.

Outline:
Biological Theories of Depression
Cognitive Theories of Depression

From the Paper
"Research into the causes of depression since the 1950s has given rise to several 'biological' theories of depression, including perhaps the most popular hypothesis that a deficiency (or imbalance) of important neurotransmitters such as noreineprine and serotonin in the brain are largely responsible for major depressive disorder (Alladin, 2005, p.8). This biological theory of depression is also called the Monoamine-Deficiency Hypothesis. The theory emanated from the study of early antidepressants developed in the 1950s, which increased the availability of neurotransmitters (norepinephrine and serotonin) in certain areas of the brain and seemed to help alleviate major depressive disorder in a large number of patients (Belmaker and Agam, 2008)."

Tags:monoamine-deficiency, neurotransmitters, serotinin, Beck, emotions

Abstract
This paper examines how anti-depressants affect brain chemistry by exploring the biology of depression itself. It shows how the biochemical systems within the human brain are extremely complex and how anti-depressants work by boosting and increasing parts of the monoamine system.

Outline
Introduction: The Biology of Depression
Anti-Depressants as Drugs
Anti-Depressant Medications and the Brain
Conclusion

From the Paper
"In recent times, numerous studies have shown that people who are depressed have abnormal amounts of certain hormones in their blood. Researchers believe that an increase or decrease in the production of specific hormones may interfere with the brain's natural chemistry which then leads to depression. With the exception of thyroid hormones, the levels of other hormones are not routinely measured when diagnosing or treating depression; thus, when a person is experiencing specific types of depression, it is advisable to check the levels of other hormones within the body. Thyroid glands, when not functioning properly, can result in the release of either too much thyroid hormone (hyperthyroidism) or too little (hypothyroidism)."

Tags:hormones, thyroid, monoamine, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism

Abstract
The paper reveals the findings of studies that anti-depressants have a much lower efficacy rate than previously thought. The paper then deals with the studies that look at the effects of anti-depressants on teenagers. The paper relates that there are three major side effects on teenagers; the actual increase of suicidal thoughts, an increased chemical dependence on the drugs itself and the long-term damage to brain and neural development as a result of the use of anti-depressants at a young age. The paper praises the trend of doctors recommending extensive therapy to teenagers with emotional problems and severe depression rather than prescribing anti-depressant medications.

From the Paper
"In the increasingly technology oriented world, the use of "miracle" drugs to cure every societal ill has become the norm. However, the problem with reliance on drugs rather than other secondary means is that there are often times side effects that occur from extended drug abuse that results to something worse than even the original problem. For the past two decades the use of popular anti-depressant drugs have become the normal method of treating suicidal or severely depressed teenagers. The practice which initially started as a test experiment has gained wide popularity among psychiatrists and doctors everywhere because it appears to decrease their inclination to suicide and limit the problems attributed to severe depression. However, the use of these drugs does nothing to fundamentally stop neither depression nor anything other than a temporary solution for permanent problems."

Tags:suicide, dependence, addiction, mood, swings, brain, pathogens

Abstract
This paper examines and analyzes depression. The discussion includes statistics, causes of depression, symptoms, treatment, anti-depressant drugs and their effectiveness, and related aspects of depression and its consequences.

Abstract
This paper is divided into three sections. The first section explores anti-depressant drugs, their characteristics, and how they work on the central nervous system. The second section investigates the acute and chronic effects of antidepressant drugs and whether drugs such as Prozac are necessary to assist such disorders. Finally, the debate as to whether antidepressants are safe and effective in the wide usage for depression is examined.

From the Paper
"While the management of depression with non-pharmacological agents (i.e., counseling, psychotherapy, electroconvulsant therapy (ECT) and light therapy) has been an option, the pharmacological agents (antidepressants) such as Prozac have promoted as effective and safe in the treatment of depression (Turkington & Kaplan 1994). The Sumerians in the Tigris-Euphrate valley were aware of the mood elevating effects of opium poppy 5,000 years ago, and they used the juice to give relaxation to people whom presented symptoms similar to being depressed. However, it was not until the 1930's that the clinical structure was described (Stahl, 1996). Iproniazid was developed to treat or ease the symptom of tuberculosis. While the drug was in use to ease the symptoms of tuberculosis, the drugs "happy" effect was noticed."

Tags:despondancy, hopelessness, abnormalities, responsiveness, neurotransmitter, systems

Abstract
Depression is basically a psychiatric disorder characterized by an inability to concentrate, insomnia, loss of appetite, anhedonia, feelings of extreme sadness, guilt, helplessness and hopelessness and thoughts of death. The paper shows that the causes and treatments put forth by various experts on depression may conflict with each other, but the one thing that everyone agrees upon is the severity and undesirability of depression and the need to employ means and treatment to cure it.

Paper Outline:
Introduction
Psycho-Analytical Perspective
Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective
Conclusion
References

From the Paper
"The research conducted in 1960s, indicates that people suffering from depression have imbalances of neurotransmitters which are the substances that allow brain cells to communicate with one another. These transmitters are Serotonin and Norepinephrine. A shortage of either of these may result in depressive mood. The irregular activity of Cortisol, a hormone that the body produces in response to stress, anger, or fear, may also result in depression."

Tags:transference, hopelessness, neurodegenerative, anti-depressant

Abstract
The paper discusses antidepressants and states that clinical evidences show that the pathophysiology behind depression is due to neurotransmitter abnormalities in the brain. The paper reports that antidepressant medications act by correcting these abnormalities. The paper states that tricyclic antidepressants (TCA) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are the oldest type of antidepressants but these have been replaced by the newer serotonin norepinephrine
reuptake inhibitors. Examples of these are venlafaxine and duloxetine. The paper further discusses the activity, side effects and mode of action of duloxetine which is available under the trade name of Cymbalta.

From the Paper
"Duloxetine hydrochloride, or Cymbalta, is a new antidepressant that possesses this dual action. It is known to have three clinical uses: as an antidepressant, as a pain reliever for diabetic peripheral neuropathies, and for alleviating urinary stress incontinence among women (Bandolier, 2007). It has also been approved for pharmacologic management of generalized anxiety disorder (Food and Drug Administration, 2006). Cymbalta has an advantage over venlafaxine. Cymbalta tends to bind tightly to specific serotonin and norepinephrine receptors than venlafaxine. This mechanism allows Cymbalta to have more specific action and less adverse effects. Moreover, it has been established that Cymbalta is effective in alleviating pain among patients who experience pain along with their depression. Studies have shown that duloxetine attenuates chronic and persistent pain within nociceptive transmission pathways."

Tags:depression, tricyclic, depressant, neurotransmitter

Abstract
The paper discusses how depression is an extremely complex disease that occurs for a variety of reasons. The paper relates that Major Depressive Disorder, and mental illnesses involving depression such as bipolar disorder (manic depressive disorder) and schizophrenia, can occur for what seems like no reason. The paper reveals that depression is a neurochemical imbalance in the brain; the question is, to what degree the neurochemical imbalance is the result of genetic or external influences. The paper explains that based on the research findings, while some individuals with severe mental illness may have depression for what seems like no reason, most depression is the interaction of environmental factors and genetic influences, when external factors trigger the neurochemical imbalance.

From the Paper
"Depression is an extremely complex disease. It occurs for a variety of reasons. Major Depressive Disorder, and mental illnesses involving depression such as bipolar disorder (manic depressive disorder) and schizophrenia, can occur for what seems like no reason. Depression is a neurochemical imbalance in the brain. The question is, to what degree the neurochemical imbalance is the result of genetic or external influences. Based on the research findings, some individuals have a propensity to develop depression based on their genetic make-up; maybe some individuals..."

Tags:depression, neurochemical, triggers

Abstract
The questions about what causes depression are not so important as complicating the theories about depression. This necessary complication of theory is essential for understanding the depressed person as a complex person, and for generating kinds of intervention therapies that can ease the symptoms of depression. Because there is no specific cure, as yet, for depression, it is crucial that people in the health care professions have greater theoretical resources for understanding the relations between the environment and the person. Nurses in particular need to participate more with the work of theorizing, because they mediate the relations between the client, or patient, and the larger medical institution that effects their care.

Tags:theories, of, depression