From the Paper
"Applications Of DNA Testing In Criminal Investigations


This research examines the use of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) testing in criminal investigations. Nucleic acids are the sole vectors of genetic information. They are polymeric molecules, of which the structural unit is a nucleotide. The nucleotide is one of two types of compounds. Each type of compound includes a nitrogen-containing base and a phosphoric acid. The first type of compound also contains a ribose sugar in ribonucleic acid (RNA), while the second type of compound contains a deoxyribose sugar in deoxyribonucleic acid--DNA.


How DNA Testing Works
In criminal investigation applications, DNA testing is often..."

Abstract
The paper relates that genes consist of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a polymer belonging to the group of compounds known as nucleic acids. The paper then explains that the other type of nucleic acid is ribonucleic acid or RNA. The paper discusses how DNA is unique because it is capable of its own reproduction.

From the Paper
"Genes consist of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a polymer belonging to the group of compounds known as nucleic acids. The other type of nucleic acid is ribonucleic acid or RNA. DNA is unique because it is capable of its own reproduction. It also directs the synthesis of RNA and controls synthesis of proteins. DNA is inherited from parents. DNA is found in chromosomes of all living things. Structure of DNA Nucleic acids are long chains of similar units called nucleotides."

Tags:dna, genes, inheritance

Abstract
In this article, the writer explains that in the study of biology, histones are the main, large, organic compounds made of amino acids that are considered to be among the most important elements of chromatin. Chromatin is the compound and compact form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the nucleus that makes up chromosomes. The paper studies one of the major and core histones, the DNA that wraps the nucleosome around two copies each of histone proteins, the H2AX and focuses on histone as a gene or protein in the aquatic environment. The paper also discusses that histone H2AX is characterized by having a long terminal tail on one end of the amino acid structure and that this feature is the main difference from H2A.

From the Paper
"Once the DNA is damaged and its physiology is disturbed in normal healthy individual, the p53 protein or TP53 is activated and can start a cell cycle arrest. The tail of H2XA, also known as the carboxy terminus, rapidly becomes labeled with phosphate groups that generate species called gamma-H2AX. This protein functions as a tumor suppressor and protects the genes as it is closely controlled by phosphorylation. The phosphorylated histone H2AX cooperates in repairing the genetic damage. It preserves the stability of the cells and prevents the onset of tumors. In DNA repair, chromatic reorganization plays an important role. Chromatin is responsible in packaging the DNA into a smaller volume for it to fit in the cell. This process aims to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis, where the cells divides and separates into two identical sets. This is also vital in apoptosis, cell cycle checkpoints, and serves as a mechanism to control inheritable information from a gene. The H2AX histone phosphorylation kinetics correlated well with the kinetics of DNA-adducts removal at earlier recovery time points. The chromatin reorganization is composed of proteins that are involved in the process."

Tags:DNA, tumor, cells, radiation, protection

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses DNA, which is short for deoxyribonucleic acid. The writer notes that the code contained within the DNA determines whether the organism turns out to be a fish or a dandelion, a person or a chimp. Further, the writer points out that it also creates the characteristics that make one individual similar to, but still different from, another. The writer explains DNA testing and notes that now that there are more reliable procedures, such as DNA testing, there are fewer people who are wrongfully convicted. The writer discusses convictions as they relate to DNA evidence.

From the Paper
"Wrongful convictions are not often talked about in the news, but they are occasionally mentioned when they are incredibly significant, such as a man who was wrongfully convicted 20 years ago and then was freed based on DNA evidence or some other new way of determining whether the person was actually guilty. These are the exceptions rather than the rules, but these do happen, and they can significantly affect the lives of many people. Not only is the life of the wrongly accused changed forever, but his or her family and friends are all affected as well. This is a very serious concern, and naturally the criminal justice system tries to avoid wrongful convictions as much as they can. It is not always possible, however, to avoid wrongfully convicting someone if there is a great deal of circumstantial evidence or if there are witnesses who claim the person is guilty of a particular crime."

Tags:VNTR, genetics, molecule, scientist

Abstract
This paper discusses one of the most significant scientific discoveries of the twentieth century, the discovery of the helical structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). According to the paper, Watson revealed this discovery in his book, 'The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA'. This paper reviews Watson's book and the fact that DNA was not discovered by a single person, nor by a group of scientists. The DNA discovery was the result of a complex series of advancements, discoveries and inspirations by many independent groups.

From the Paper
"Watson next goes on a series of European excursions and vacations; including being able to finally listed to Pauling. When he returns to Cambridge in the fall, Watson exhibits less preoccupation with DNA, and hears of the discovery by some bacteriologists that some bacteria actually reproduce sexually. This causes Watson to muse that the microbial genetics of them could be understood within a few years after DNA's structure is discovered. In the meantime, Watson writes that Franklin's X-Ray data "were getting prettier and prettier," (Watson 148). Furthermore, he credits her with obtaining the data indicating that the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA was actually on the outside of the molecule; still, "She gave no sign . . . of liking helices any better," (Watson 148). Watson continues to explain his faith-based understanding of DNA when he writes, "The idea of the genes' being immortal smelled right," (Watson 153). After this leap of inference, however, Watson learns that Pauling is about to unveil another discovery regarding DNA; this worries most everyone at Cambridge. "

Tags:Maurice, Wilkins, Rosalind, Franklin, Linus, Pauling, Francis, Crick, alpha-helix, scientific

Abstract
This paper describes the structure of DNA and its purpose, especially as it relates to heredity. DNA is noted as having a double helix structure which serves several functions. These molecular activities are explained in detail. Then, the paper explores Friedrich Miescher's original work relating to DNA in addition to the contributions of Gregor Mendel to this field. The paper concludes by addressing the role of DNA in genetic mutations.

From the Paper
"Although knowledge of the DNA only came into being in the 1900s, the concept of a miniscule matter holding traits necessary for passing genetic traits have been in existent several earlier on. This "miniscule matter" was then called nuclein, a term concocted by Friedrich Miescher in 1868 when he "isolated something no one had ever seen before from the nuclei of cells. This is today called nucleic acid, the 'NA' in DNA (deoxyribo-nucleic-acid) and RNA (ribo-nucleic-acid). (Fredholm, 2003)" There was a parallel story to Miescher's discovery of nuclein but occurred a few years earlier. The Czech monk, Gregor Mendel, has been attributed as the father of genetics and this is quite apropos because of the experiments he performed during his time especially on peas. "His observations turned out to be closely connected to the finding of nuclein. Mendel was able to show that certain traits in the peas, such as their shape or color, were inherited in different packages. These packages are what we now call genes. (Fredholm, 2003)" There were mutations in the peas observed my Mendel and these mutations became a source of variation in species."

Tags:deoxyribonucleic acid, pyrimidines, cytosine, thymine, double helix

Abstract
The paper explains that a DNA profile refers to unique identifying characteristics of an individual. The paper relates that DNA profiling and the collation of databases that can be shared allow for a successful and effective way of combating crime. The paper offers a variety of other reasons why DNA profiling and the maintenance of DNA databases can be useful. The paper discusses how this technology is being constantly improved and there are indications that fast and more effective methods of profiling are being developed.

From the Paper
"The science of DNA profiling has many applications. The most common usage of this technology is to rapidly identify the criminal perpetrator in a crime. An article from the University of Utah states: "DNA profiling has helped to acquit or convict suspects in many of the most violent crimes, including rape and murder." (Can DNA Demand a Verdict?) DNA profiling can be equally effective in preventing an innocent person for being wrongly convicted of crimes."

Tags:crime, arrests, tests, deoxyribonucleic, acid