Abstract
This essay examines negative campaign advertising in the political system. It provides a brief history and description of negative campaigning and uncover reasons behind the rise of negative advertising in the political arena. It also includes a review of suggested negative effects of exposure to negative advertising, as well as a literature review examining the effects of exposure to negative advertising on voter turnout. Finally, the essay provides a discussion of research findings and offer suggestions for future research and effects prevention.

Table of Contents:
Abstract
Negative Campaign Advertising: Description and History
The Rise of Negative Campaign Advertising
Effects of Negative Campaign Advertising: Past Research
Pertinent Literature Review
Demobilization Effects
Moderating Factors
Demobilization Theory Disputed
Discussion: Casting Doubt on Demobilization Findings
Conclusion
Controversy, Regulation, and Prevention
Final Thoughts

From the Paper
"Another suggested cause of the recent increase in negative campaigning is the growth in independent expenditures by political action committees (PACs) and supplemental lax spending laws. In the 1970's campaign finance regulations declared that while limitations on individual contributions to campaigns is legal, constitutional free speech prohibits placing limitations on the ways in which contributions are spent. As a result, independent contributors are free to use their contribution monies as they like."

Tags:reputation, dukakis, demobilization, polarization, newspapers

Abstract
This extensive paper reviews the well researched book by Chalmers Johnson, "Blowback: The Cost and Consequences of American Empire," in its investigation for the reason for the recent terrorist attacks against America citizens worldwide. It explorers the international policy of the United States since the post World War II era, and the tactics of the Pentagon and the CIA in controlling the internal affairs of other nations. The paper believes that American should change its dominating policies, by not demoralizing other nations and demobilizing the United States forces, which would lessen the deep resentment against its growing influence and imperialistic rule in other countries most noticeably, Middle Eastern and Asian regions.

From the Paper
"To most Americans, it is not clear why they are being targeted around the world by terrorists and what have they done to arose such hatred and antagonism. They consider themselves innocent harmless human beings who happen to be the citizens of world's most powerful country. So what exactly is wrong with that, why is their nationality causing huge problems for them. These are some of the important questions popping up in the minds of millions of Americans residing in all parts of the world. Many have tried to answer them but few have done with the precision and depth of Chalmers Johnson. His highly well researched book, "Blowback: The Cost and Consequences of American Empire" focuses on American political and military policies which have caused problems for its citizens around the world. Terrorist attacks against Americans are rising but few have tried to explore the root causes of this. Johnson carefully explains that the primary cause of rising tension between America and the rest of the world is rooted in the former's policies. It is important to keep one important thing in mind. Though there are similar books available on the subject but their objective is different from that of Johnson's. They mainly try to denounce American policies and show how they are leading to worldwide conflict, but this is the not the sole purpose of Johnson's research. Johnson maintains that America must seek to learn from its past mistakes in order to lessen the impact of its wrong policies. While on the surface, he may appear to be another leftist critics of government's policies, but the actual truth is that Johnson's purpose is anything but to instigate its enemies against the administration. He is though totally unsympathetic of CIA and Pentagon's actions, he feels that the best way to improve security conditions for America and its citizens is to target the root causes of this antagonism and hatred. He doesn't intend to demoralize America but instead wants to show its government and people what they have been unable to see through their ill-informed rose-colored and often prejudiced glasses. The world is changing and the policies of other countries including South Korea and Japan are likely to affect America in the long run whether the government believes it or not. He believes not in demoralizing but in demobilizing of United States, which might lessen deep resentment against its growing influence and imperialistic rule in other countries most noticeably, Middle Eastern and Asian regions."

Tags:terrorism, cia, pentagon