Abstract
The paper discusses the definition of justice provided by Thrasymachus that inferred that what masquerades as "justice" is merely the desires and interests of the more powerful and influential in society over those of the less powerful. The paper then questions why justice should matter at all and looks at several definitions of justice that have been advanced throughout the history of political philosophy and human ethics. The paper concludes by offering another definition of justice.

Outline:
Introduction
Distinguishing Justice from Power and Influence
Why Should Justice Matter at All?
Towards a Definition of Justice
Conclusion

From the Paper
"According to the most logical interpretation of the definition of justice provided by Thrasymachus, the statement that "justice is nothing other than the advantage of the stronger" was not meant as a definition of the concept of justice, but rather, as a critical observation that what masquerades as "justice" are merely the desires and interests of the more powerful and influential in society over those of the less powerful or influential. In fact, what Thrasymachus describes as justice is actually the antithesis of justice."

Tags:Thrasymachus, power, influence, Hellenism, Sophocles, Plato

Abstract
This paper explains the social, economic, ethical and political concept, essence of justice, and all that it encompasses. The paper talks about the need for individuals to internalize and actualized justice in order for society to truly achieve it on all levels. Aristotle's definition and concept of justice are also discussed.

From the Paper
"The understanding and practice of "justice" is central to the achievement of peace and happiness by the individual as well as society, as a whole. However, no amount of institutalization and administration of legal, political or civil systems, no matter how just or fair, can ever ensure the achievement of the same, without individual and collective commitment to the upholding of the concept of justice, in its fullest sense."

Tags:peace, happiness, constitutional, legal, just, fairness, moral, righteousness, fair, honor, law, equity

Abstract
Socrates' views are analyzed by studying a conversation between Socrates, Cephalus, his son Polemarchus and his followers. The author explains how Socrates enters into a philosophical dialogue with several different individuals who attempt to set down a firm definition of justice. Socrates then sets out to test and challenge their definitions through his method of questioning and counter-examples in an attempt to arrive at a more secure definition of justice, that which cannot be refuted.

From the Paper
"Cephalus first raises the idea of justice with Socrates and then passes the debate on to his son, Polemarchus, to carry forward. In line with his father's arguments, Polemarchus develops the most basic definition of justice suggested in the Republic. He makes the claim that justice means simply to speak the truth and to give people their proper due; for example, old debts should be repaid. Justice also means treating people in accordance with their essential character. For example, Polemarchus concludes that if a certain individual is considered an enemy, that individual should meet with "something harmful" (26); if another individual is considered a friend, that individual should be treated well."

Tags:philosophy, justice, socrates, plato, laws, conformity, punishment

Abstract
Socrates' conception of justice as presented in this work is examined. The definition is then compared to a modern, democratic understanding of justice. A discussion of justice in terms of the individual versus the society as a whole is presented.

From the Paper
"In Part Five of Plato's Republic, entitled "Justice in State and Individual" the philosopher Socrates states that "I believe justice is the requirement we laid down at the beginning as of universal application when we founded our state, or else some particular form of it." This statement is likely to set the modern reader up for a certain false assumption about the fundamental political structure of Plato's Republic. Because of the phrase that "justice for all" is the cornerstone of American notions of democratic governance, it is tempting to ascribe similar notions to Socrates, a man presumed to be one of the founders of liberal thought, as the philosopher was a citizen of ancient, democratic Athens. (204)"

Tags:Socrates, Athens, harmony, individual, society, democracy, polis

Abstract
To gain insight into the nature of justice as it relates to war in the 21st century, this paper uses three books that review its role: Michael Walzer's "Just and Unjust Wars"; Michael Howard's "War in European History"l and Kauppi and Viotti's "The Global Philosophers: World Politics in Western Thought".

From the Paper
"Walzer is unique in that he portrays war as a matter of morality, when conventionally it is almost always thought of as a matter of interest. In his book, Just and Unjust Wars, Walzer attempts to make a distinction between "the good fight" and other kinds of fighting. War has been traditionally thought of as force employed in the interest of those that possess the power and will to successfully employ it. However, because the soldier in the battlefield faces uncertain death, moral arguments are necessary to compel him to fight unless his ability to vanquish is consummate; plunder seldom befits a coffin."

Tags:ethics, morality

Abstract
To gain insight to the nature of justice as it relates to war in the 21st century, this paper uses three books that review its role: Michael Walzer's "Just and Unjust Wars", Michael Howard's, "War in European History", and Kauppi and Viotti's "The Global Philosophers: World Politics in Western Thought".

From the Paper
"Walzer is unique in that he portrays war as a matter of morality, when conventionally it is almost always thought of as a matter of interest. In his book, Just and Unjust Wars, Walzer attempts to make a distinction between "the good fight" and other kinds of fighting. War has been traditionally thought of as force employed in the interest of those that possess the power and will to successfully employ it. However, because the soldier in the battlefield faces uncertain death, moral arguments are necessary to compel him to fight unless his ability to vanquish is consummate; plunder seldom befits a coffin. In their absence, social arguments that befit the initiation of force must serve in their stead. The Viking who failed to join a raid so that he might see the sun rise over the fjords another day faced almost-universal ostracism at the hands of his surly peers.
Although he makes many references to wars that were fought throughout history, the wars that Walzer concerns himself with are modern; 21st century no-holds barred variety; he echoes the argument of Karl von Clausewitz, who claimed that war was a potentially unlimited act of force. This, he claims, is a result of escalation: "there can be no imaginable act of violence, however treacherous or cruel, that falls outside of war, that is not war, for the logic of war simply is a steady thrust toward moral extremity." As von Clausewitz puts it, the limits are those of force itself. Because the initiator of conflict is the originator of this recursive exchange of violent force, Walzer argues that this initiator is responsible for all outcomes of the war, whether they be within the aggressor's initially defined interests or not. Walzer uses ancient wars to demonstrate moral principles: in that he makes prescriptions for wartime behavior, they almost always relate to the current geo-political structure."

Tags:Walzer, Howard, Kauppi, Viotti, Just, War, ethics, morality

Abstract
This paper examines the International Court of Justices' stance in relation to its avowed non-refusal in resolving legal disputes that are connected to or part of a broader political dispute. This paper focuses on the critical analysis of whether the International Court of Justice (ICJ) has adopted a convincing and consistent approach to this issue of justiciability.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Overview of the Process of ICJ
Examination of the Issue
Definition of a Legal Dispute
Dissemination of the Issue of Justiciability
Conclusion

From the Paper
"It is important to understand that the doctrine of stare decisis is not applicable to the International Court of Justice and that the ICJ is not legally bound by its previous decisions. Because the International Court of Justice weighs the facts of each case and holds the facts in the case being heard as separate from other similar cases. This principle of not adhering to recent case decisions handed down in other court decisions of the ICJ and the practice of considering each case on its own merits alone enables the ICJ in its decisions handed down on cases that are in reality a part to other disputes."

Tags:ICJ, resolution, settlement

Abstract
This paper examines a variety of authors, from Plato to John Rawls and looks at why the varied theories of justice presented by these philosophers have not arrived at a single answer to the question "What is Justice?". Over the course of hundreds of years, no system of justice has addressed the fundamental divide between theory and reality- what roles do human nature and society play when determining what a just society is? The author asserts that these questions must be answered in order to describe a system of ultimate reality. The metaphor of Schroedinger's Cat is used, in addition to 8 well known authors - John Rawls, Plato, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Donne, John Stuart Mill, Henry David Thoreau, James Madison and George Clinton.

From the Paper
"From the earliest recorded writings on philosophy, the concept of justice has been a source of heated debate. The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates offers the theory "... that justice is the excellence of the soul, and injustice the defect of the soul" (Plato). The modern philosopher John Rawls envisioned a system of "justice as fairness", in which the principles of justice are "the principles that free and rational persons concerned to further their own interests would accept in an initial position of equality as defining the fundamental terms of their association" (199). In the hundreds of years that separate the two, many more theories have been discussed. Each philosopher adds to the concept his idea of where justice might come from, and how society might endeavor to become just. Yet in those thousands of years, no single thinker has described a working model for a society that is perfectly just."

Tags:federalist, socrates, Ten, Commandments, constitution

Abstract
This paper discusses the concept of restorative justice with regards to rape victims. It gives a definition of restorative justice according to different groups and describes how this form of justice is meant to assist the victim. The paper discusses restorative justice in relation to past cases of rapes and how the victims and families dealt with the crime.

From the Paper
"Because Lucy's bones were part of the evidence, the family could not receive them until the case was ended, but Marian did see her sister's bones; "I gasped at the sight of her skull - it was so beautiful, like burnished gold..." Meanwhile in order to bring closure, Marian was advised by her Buddhist counselor about restorative justice, and she became involved in mediation for other rape victims. Marian told a group of incarcerated rapists that her sister had been gagged before being killed, and so she, Marian, wished to hear their truths. "One of the prisoners who had committed multiple rape said, '...Until you spoke I was just play at victim empathy,' and it clearly helped him to understand what he'd done." And moreover, Marian is planning to write a letter to one of the two persons (now in prison) responsible for the mass murders (and Lucy's murder). "Those who know her [the convicted co-murderer] have advised me that it is not yet time to suggest..." a meeting between the two. "Meanwhile, I am content to continue sending her compassion," Marian concluded."

Tags:mediation, empowerment, counselor

Abstract
The paper relates that "The Handbook of Organizational Justice" strives to provide a more concrete definition of organizational justice for managers and management theorists alike. The paper summarizes the chapters and shows how the book underlines the contentious nature of core managerial concepts, without attempting to clarify them. The paper points out the book's weaknesses but adds that the book still functions as a useful introduction to organizational justice.

From the Paper
"The editors of the Handbook of Organizational Justice, Gerald S. Greenberg & Jason Colquitt, are themselves leading writers in the field. They bring together the leading scholars of organizational theory to author self-enclosed chapters that examine major issues of concern, as well as target areas of future debate. They authors provide a framework and background, without striving to provide a coherent, linear point of view. To do so would be impossible in a handbook encompassing twenty chapters, an introduction and conclusion, almost all of which are authored by different scholars. The chapters are self-enclosed, to make it easier to target the reader or researcher's major area of interest."

Tags:management, employees, stress, performance, salaries