Abstract
Plants have developed their own unique methods to protect themselves from threats and without these defenses would perish. These defenses range from natural defenses that plants have developed over time such as thorns or waxy leaves to bio-engineered defenses where the plants have molecularly altered defenses. This paper highlights the key plant defense mechanisms including structural, metabolic, defenses against insects, defenses against pathogens and disease resistant genes. It also examines biotechnology including case studies and discusses its future.

From the Paper
"When an insect attacks a plant, the attack signals the plant to produce insect toxins. These toxins may have varying effects on insects. The effects may range from simply repelling inspects to inhibiting the insects development. The compound within plants that signals them to release the toxins is called systemin. Systemin activates two genes that in turn produce proteinase inhibitors. Insects use proteinase to digest proteins. When the plant releases the proteinase inhibitors, it prevents the insect's ability to digest the plant's proteins."

Tags:pathogens, disease, genes, insects, pollutants, metabolic, defenses, environment

Abstract
This paper attempts to analyze the recent increases of the national defense budget. The author argues this was plotted by US President George Bush and the US Congress in order to increase economic growth for future generations of American citizens. The writer further argues that these increases are the type of funding that feed capitalism in a negative way by promoting war and war industries. The author concludes that the current spending trends do not consider the average citizen.

Outline:
Executive Summary
Statement of Thesis
Introduction
Global Military Spending By Country
Background
Importance of the Research
Methodology
U.S. National Defense Spending Facts & Figures
Figure 2 Discretionary Defense Budget
Afghanistan and Iraq Missions and Impact on Defense
-Spending Increases
National Defense Spending Insanity Evidenced in Thoughtless Waste
Analysis of 'Who' is it that Profits from Increased Defense Spending
Counter Argument
Figure 3
Findings of the Study
Discussion
Bibliography

From the Paper
"According to the report entitled: "Recent Trends in World Spending: U.S. Military Spending Compared to World Spending" the United States military spending "...currently makes up 47% of the world military spending. The U.S. budget is also more than 8 times larger than the Chinese budget, the second largest spender." (Recent Trends in World Spending, 2006) In fact the rate of spending by the US military on a global basis rose 11% but if the costs of U.S. operations in Iraq and Afghanistan is subtracted from these figures the global military spending would have totaled a rise of only 4% in the year 2003 instead of the actual 11% rise stated. (Ibid) Additionally stated in the report is the fact that: "Among the four major spenders next to the USA- China, Russia, Japan, and, France. Only China has made any significant increase in its military spending since 1998 (an annual average rate of 10-12 %). Military spending in the other countries also increased but only moderately." (Ibid) The following table labeled Figure 1 shows the "Global Military Spending" by the countries of the United States, China, Russian, France, Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany, Saudi Arabia, India and South Korea during 2002."

Tags:defense, spending, national, budget

Abstract
The paper discusses how America is a "wired" nation; over the past few decades, computers have come to run the country's financial institutions, America's universities, its tax collection services, its law enforcement apparatus, and its military defense system. The paper points out that because of all this, any compromising of the passwords or firewalls built around those electronic networks can create enormous problems. The paper describes how if sensitive government information - or information on American citizens - falls into the wrong hands, such as the clutches of terrorists, the end result could be a shocking loss of innocent life. In a similar vein, the paper considers how if the defense networks safeguarding the United States of America were to be suddenly rendered inoperable, then rogue states harboring nuclear weapons would be able to direct those weapons at US targets without an appropriate defense response being in the offing. As an additional point, the paper notes that the nuclear warheads in this nation's imposing arsenal are, for all intents and purposes, computer-controlled; if terrorist hackers were to compromise domestic electronic defense systems, it is entirely likely that nuclear payloads could be unleashed on American cities. With all this in mind, the paper discusses how the electronic defense system in the world's most powerful state is protected, how vulnerable it may be, what the consequences of a security breach could be, and what additional steps we should take to protect ourselves. In the end, the paper shows how being the world's hyper-power is a bulwark in many ways against attack, but our elevated position does not leave us invulnerable.

From the Paper
"It may be said that America is a "wired" nation. To wit, over the past few decades, computers have come to run the country's financial institutions (specifically the data collection of those institutions), America's universities, its tax collection services, its law enforcement apparatus, and its military defense system. Because of all this, any compromising of the passwords or firewalls built around those electronic networks can create enormous problems. Suffice it to say, if sensitive government information - or information on American citizens - falls into the wrong hands, such as the clutches of terrorists, the end result could be a..."

Tags:computers, national, defense

Abstract
The paper begins with an overview of how criminal liability is measured in terms of the degrees and principles surrounding liability. The crux of the paper, however, concentrates on aspects of the legal framework that provide defenses to criminal liability. This analysis is then supported with a theoretical framework and findings from the literature that are used to provide thorough analyses related to defenses to criminal liability.

Outline:
Introduction
Legal Framework of Criminal Liability
Strict Liability and the Defense
Justification of Criminal Conduct
Criminal Liability
Defense
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The criminal liability relationship highlighted within the paper and later presented with examples for defenses to criminal liability is affected by differences related to types of crimes; such as, criminal conduct and true crimes. That is, the degree of liability within the former does not require all of the principles to be upheld while with the latter it is necessary that the corpus delicti rule holds. As such the measures of criminal liability are different across categories and may not be easily quantified in the relationship outlined in the equation specified throughout the paper. An example of the former is a burglary while of the latter its homicide, the difference within these two crimes is a clear indication of why criminal liability is not a trivial issue and why it is not always a direct relationship and how defenses can be formulated within the legal context (Schellenger & Wittmer, 2003, p. 1).
In the general scenario, the degree of liability can be easily established via culpability, capacity, and responsibility along with the five principles highlighted, however the logical structure of criminal liability is not as simple as the formula above highlights but has different scenarios and principles that will affect how the law is quantified or how the degree of criminal liability is measured."

Tags:Defenses, criminal, liability

Abstract
This paper stresses that, without the due process rights and the guaranteed adversarial process involved in the criminal justice system, attorneys would not be able to present evidence to the court of the innocence of the defendant. Next, the author relates that factual or legal defenses attempt to prove that it would be impossible for the defendant to have committed the crime. The paper explains that the excuse defenses provide a rationale for having committed the crime; whereas, justification defenses involve admitting guilt but provide a reason why they disobeyed the law are most often used to gain exculpation. Specific examples are included in the paper.

From the Paper
"The excuse defense involves the extenuating circumstances involved with the crime. In other words the criminal defendant committed the crime but their excuse for committing the crime becomes their defense. The excuse defense of duress involves a natural response to a natural threat. Duress occurs when the defendant has been deprived of his or her free will by means of a threat of violence or threat to personal liberty (Matters, 2004). For example in the case of a female bank manager who was kidnapped along with her daughter. Explosive were put around the waist of the bank managers seven years old daughter and the defendant was told unless she robbed the bank her daughter would die. The bank manager did as she was instructed and robbed the bank. The bank manager committed the crime of bank robbery because she had no other choice. In fact she was acting out of duress when she committed the crime of bank robbery.
"Another excuse defense is intoxication. The criminal defendant claims they were not responsible for their criminal actions because they were intoxicated. A criminal defendant will plead not guilty to the charges citing because of their intoxication they are not guilty of the crime. In order to be guilty of a crime the criminal defendant must have the intent to commit the crime or mens rea."

Tags:self-defense, extenuating circumstances, involuntary intoxication, provocation competency

Abstract
This paper takes a look at global defense companies and the adaptations they have been forced to make over the years, in order to survive. According to the paper, defense spending has resulted in increased production of goods and services needed to satisfy the increased demand, a process that contributes to higher income and employment in the economy. The paper discusses how cutbacks influence the general economy.

Outline:
Chapter One: Introduction
Chapter Two: What are the Research and Development (R&D) Options for Companies such as NGC?
Chapter Three: What Options will be Most Beneficial to the Employees and the General Public of the U.S.?
Chapter Four: Can the U.S. Remain a Superpower and Protect Its People from Terrorism while Reducing Its Military?
Conclusion

From the Paper
"In spite of these changes in the nature of the threats being arrayed against the U.S. at home and its interests and allies abroad and despite President Bush's articulation of specific campaign promises to "skip a generation" in weapons procurement, all three of the Pentagon's advanced fighter plane programs continued to receive funding; in fact, in 2002 alone, almost $12 billion was allocated to the Air Force's F-22 Raptor, the Joint Strike Fighter/F-35, and the Navy's F-18E/F fighter plane (Ciarroco, 2002). According to Ciarroco, "The F-22 has been described as a costly cold war relic designed for an enemy that no longer exists. The Super Hornet, as the F-18E/F is known, has not been able to meet key performance goals that were used to justify its development" (2002, p. 2). The JSF (also known as the F-35) was considered one of the more likely programs to be cut or scaled back; within weeks of September 11, 2001, though, Lockheed Martin was awarded a $19 billion development contract, and international partners formally joined (Ciarroco, 2002). "

Tags:NGC, weapons, research, development, defense, budget, battlefields, pentagon, government

Abstract
This paper examines the use of the insanity defense in criminal law, with a focus on the legal issues involved with verdicts of "not guilty by reason of insanity" also known as NGRI and "guilty but mentally ill." The paper traces the use of the insanity defense, citing specific cases and the precedents they set. In particular, the paper discusses the M'Naghten rule at length. The paper further highlights the difficulties in proving insanity by describing specific cases and giving a brief literature review. The paper also explores the concept of premeditation. The paper concludes that trials dealing with issues such as mental illness are ones that should not be taken lightly and should be viewed upon in all facets of the criminal justice system.

From the Paper
"The M'Naghten rule deals what is known as the "Right-Wrong Test." According to the book on Criminal Law by Joe Samaha, the "Right-Wrong Test" deals with the two main points that the "defendant" had to have had a "defect" or "mental disease" at the time that the defendant committed the crime. The second part of the Right-Wrong test is that the defendant was not aware of the aforementioned problems (the defendant was not aware of the full extent of the problems) and that the defendant's actions were "wrong." "

Tags:mental incapacity, defense attorneys, trials, Irresistible Impulse Test, NGRI

Abstract
This paper evaluates the case of Andrea Yates and whether it meets the standards of the insanity defense under Texas law. The paper theoretically applies the insanity defense to various standards.

From the Paper
"Under the current Texas law it is highly unlikely that Andrea Yates would meet the requirements for an insanity plea. The facts of the case show that Andrea Yates was mentally ill during the period of and leading up to her commission of the murders. It was also shown that the mental illness severely impaired her judgment and perceptions of reality. However Yates' state of mind during the commission of the crime still does not fall under the narrow parameters the ..."

Tags:Texas Insanity Defense, Andrea Yates, Mental Illness

Abstract
This paper reviews current law in the United States and in California on the insanity defense in criminal trials. It looks at the historical roots of mental illness as a defense and the application of rights and the rules of law. The paper cites cases.

From the Paper
"Historically the roots of the legal notion that mental abnormality instability or insanity should be considered in assessing criminal liability date back to Greece before the birth of Christ. Based in large measure ..."

Tags:law, insanity defense, California, criminal

Abstract
This is a paper that goes into the different legal defenses that are brought up in criminal trials. The defenses included in this paper are duress, necessity, infancy, automatism, entrapment, and insanity.

From the Paper
"A defendant may bring the defense of duress up when being prosecuted for a criminal offense, although not very often successful. There are two points that the defendant has to prove in order for this defense to succeed. The first point of this defense can be interpreted by meaning that the force used by the defendant must have been less then, but not greater then, the force which was used or was going to be used upon him. For example, if a person walked up to you on the street and said he was going to punch you in the face, that would not permit you to take out a gun and shoot him, nor would it permit you to take out a knife and stab him. The defense would be applicable though if you used only as much force necessary to subdue him from punching you. If on the other hand a person walked up to you and said he was going to shoot you, and then pulled out a gun, you could in turn shoot him, and have a valid defense. The second important aspect that the defendant must show is that the threat of force or harm must be imminent, meaning that it was happening right at that moment."

Tags:automatism, courts, defenses, duress, entrapment, infancy, insanity, legal, necessity, trials