Abstract The central claim of "deepecology" is that we need to correct an anthropocentric bias in our attitudes to the nonhuman world, and in particular to extend moral concern across time and across species. This paper will examine the benefits and the shortcomings of anthropocentrism within the framework of 'deepecology'. As well, this paper will attempt to demonstrate both the value and some of the limitations of this framework with respect to the problem of anthropocentrism.
This paper argues the concept of ecocentrism, as expressed in the philosophy of the deepecology platform, the basic tenets of which are explained in this paper.
Abstract This paper explains that, for all of recorded history, Western cultures have operated on an implicit foundation of anthropocentrism, which assumes that human beings are the most important beings in the world. The author points out that ecocentrism, also known as biocentrism, is the exact opposite of anthropocentrism in that it sees the ecosystem itself as central. The paper relates that the first principle of the deepecology movement, as formulated by Arne Naess and George Sessions in 1984, gives expression to the essence of ecocentrism. The author further states that the deepecology platform is a foundation that might make it possible to save the planet, humans and most of the other still surviving species; however, none of the above will come easily to most people, accustomed to considering humans as the center of the universe and the pinnacle of all creation.
From the Paper "However, sacrifices will have to be made. One cannot drive a luxury SUV through a Garden-of-Eve like paradise - one of them has to go. The trick will be for enough people to realize it is the SUV that needs to go. Of course, the SUV is meant as a metaphor for the many excessive luxuries that so many people insist on, generating a consumerism that has sustained the multinational corporations that are devouring the resources of our planet. Thus, what needs to happen is a total shift in what we value."
Abstract In the last twenty years, the debate over global warming, deforestation and other conservation issues have become part of the national conscious. People are becoming more and more aware of the many destructive impacts of man on the global environment. Rising to meet this problem is a movement called DeepEcology. DeepEcology proposes a number of values aimed at influencing people to realize their connection to their environment and to do everything possible to live in global harmony.
This paper compares Norwegian philosopher Arme Naess' ecology philosophy called "deepecology" with Indian author Ramachandra Guha's ecological philosophy of "anthropocentrism".
Abstract This paper explains that Arme Naess' philosophy of "deepecology" encourages respect for the environment, not because humans depend on nature, but because nature and its inhabitants have inherent value. The author points out that Ramachandra Guha's ecological philosophy of "anthropocentrism" declares that all environmental responsibility is derived from human interests alone, which challenges this "deepecology" philosophy. The paper concludes that Ramachandra Guha, who alleges that "shallow ecology" is sufficient for providing a satisfactory ethic of obligation and concern for the non-human world, is not rational; rather the concept of "deepecology" needs to be extended especially toward non-human individuals, wilderness areas and across time and species.
From the Paper "Assuming characteristically anthropocentric perspectives and values is a defect, we should, instead, assume a biocentric perspective. We should certainly abandon crude conceptions of human needs that equate them with the sort of needs that are satisfied by extravagant resource use. One of the problems with shallow ecology lies in anthropocentrism, specifically the fact that they are characteristically short-term, sectional, and self-regarding. Suppose that astronomers detect a modest asteroid on collision course with Earth. The impending collision would be perfectly natural. Such periodic disruptive events are natural, though they probably destroy most of the then extant large life forms. These times of renewal provide opportunities for smaller, flexible organisms to radiate opportunistically into vacated niches, and life goes on. There is little doubt that our demise would provide comparable opportunities for development that we currently prevent. Even then, we should step aside so that evolution can continue on its majestic course."
Abstract This paper discusses how ecological footprints, effective ecological tools used to help maintain our world, impose many questions in sustaining the earth's life. Charts are included with the paper.
Defining Our Ecological Footprint
Dependency on Nature
Carrying Capacity of Cities and Earth
Comparison between Countries
Natural Capita: Effects on the Earth
Impact of the World Economies
Solutions
From the Paper "The world economy has a great impact on the ecological footprints of the world. Every country wants to obtain economic growth to produce more money. But in doing this, they have to deplete their natural capital, which in turn, is not helping in sustaining this world. As William Rees states, "there is simply not enough on the planet to sustain present international development trends using prevailing technologies" (Westra and Werhane ed. 1998, 115). So something drastic has to be done. As the ecological footprints of humans are already too large for the earth to handle, how can we accommodate the rising materials and rising in population, while trying to sustain the earth. Most analysts agree that it can happen in two ways: through a reduction in the standard of living or through the increase in material and energy efficiency (Westra and Werhane ed. 1998, 115). These two issues also apply problems, through cultural, economic, and social values. Especially in the more developed countries. To lower the standard of living would be outright rejected in the more developed countries such as Canada and the U. S. So indeed, most people agree that "global sustainability is achievable only through large increases in the consumption of goods and services in both poorer and richer countries" (Westra and Werhane ed. 1998, 115). But still a problem arises. There will still be inequity in the growth of the more and less developed countries. It seems the richer get richer and the poorer get poorer. A consensus seems to be emerging though. They say that the needed consumption will work if there is a reduction in the material energy costs of goods and services. "
This paper explains how wildlife management and ecological restoration are thought to be the same concept, but their objectives and goals are often very different.
Abstract This paper uses the San Marcos Springs ecosystem and its endangered species as an example of how wildlife management and ecological restoration may seem to compliment each other but, actually they are seeking out different goals. It explains that in order to preserve the endangered native species, all of current species located in the ecosystem must be considered.
From the Paper "Wildlife conservation and management have been called the art and science of managing wildlife species, habitats, and ecosystems for long-term human benefit. The first system of wildlife conservation was an Eastern rather than a Western idea, developed by the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (Smith 1976). Although the art of managing wildlife is centuries old, the science is relatively new and is becoming increasingly important all the time. However, science is only part of how we view and manage our wildlife resources. Social, cultural, political, and legal constraints and issues often have more to do with how wildlife resources are managed than pure science. Understanding these constraints and issues is fundamental to conservation and management. J. B. Kauffman (1997) stated that a successful ?conservation programme cannot be based on a preoccupation with saving the animal itself. Its total environment must be preserved.? This type of forward thinking helped change the idea of single species conservation and gave rise to the concept of restoration ecology."
This paper reviews and examines Donald Hughes' book "North American Indian Ecology" which focuses on a wide range of ecological and environmental issues faced by Native American Indians in the 20th century.
Abstract This paper explores and details North American Indian life and culture as portrayed in Donald Hughes' book "North American Indian Ecology." This paper discusses the land issues facing the North American Indian tribes including overgrazing, erosion and assessments of appropriate land usage. The writer of this paper finds Hughes' book to be straightforward and concise in clarifying the characteristics of Indian life such as hunting, food growing and rituals.
From the Paper "Tribes are having to mediate the disparate demands of their members and the industrial mindset of the BIA to balance forest use for economic need and preservation for cultural need. Tribes face many of the same problems as non-Native communities held hostage by the timber industry. Replanting has not always kept pace with harvesting on public or trust lands. The push to harvest old-growth timber is constrained by federal mandates to protect endangered species habitats, putting people out of work. Few local communities gain the "value-added" benefits of processing their own timber especially jobs and new businesses and when they do the environmental impact of mill sites has to be factored into any cost-benefit analysis."
Abstract In this essay, the writer looks at the matter of restoring the natural balance of the landscape. The writer discusses Robert Elliot's apparent distaste for ecological restoration in close detail throughout the first portion of this paper. This article explores the circumstances in which restoration may be considered benevolent, through careful examination of Elliot's philosophy and that of Murray Krieger. The writer concludes that in the case of restoring the natural balance of the land, one is not attempting to profit from the restoration or create a fake situation, but rather restore the original version to its original grace and glory so it can be better appreciated.
From the Paper "Robert Elliot in his work "Faking Nature" rejects the idea that restoration ecology is useful in many instances. Elliot asserts that attempting to restore the natural ecology of the land is nothing more than an attempt to forge that which was once natural and beneficial. In this light restoring the natural ecology of the land seems nothing more than an attempt to fake that which is natural, which in and of itself promotes no intrinsic value.
Further Elliot asserts that one can not reproduce the value that original ecosystems had to offer. The field of environmental ethics proposes that the natural value of nature should be preserved rather than the value of nature purely for human purposes including survival or consumption. Under this assumption nature isn't necessarily valued by humans desiring to create artificial landscapes purely for humanistic benefits."
Abstract This paper examines Julian Steward's theory of cultural change, which is also referred to as cultural ecology. This is the theory that environment and culture exist in a dialectical relationship, at least with regard to resource use and production. The paper provides an overview of the theory, examples of the theory at work, and concludes with a critique of the theory's weaknesses.
From the Paper "Perhaps it is no more than a biological necessity to find order in the world that drives the human mind to develop all manner of theories by which seemingly unrelated events can be explained. Perhaps the drive is more cultural in nature. However, if that were the case, then proponents of Julian Steward's theory of cultural ecology would no doubt attempt to explain the drive as the result of a complex interaction between cultural and environmental factors. Whatever the case on that score, it is nonetheless apparent that in all academic disciplines there is a push to develop theoretical-methodological approaches to study that can explain the nature of the discipline and also provide avenues for further research. The cultural ecological perspective is one such approach that attempts to explain the origin and development of cultural elements to interactions and adaptations..."
This paper reviews two writings on ecotheology: the first chapter of "First along the River" by Benjamin Kline and "Ecocentrism and the Anthropocentric Detour" by George Sessions
1,415 words (approx. 5.7 pages), 2 sources, 2002, $ 47.95
Abstract This paper discusses that , in the first chapter of "First along the River", Benjamin Kline traces the philosophical foundations of Western society's belief that humanity determines nature and that the needs of the environment are subordinate to human needs. The author points out that the philosophical underpinnings of human's relationship with nature have shifted from divine sanction to scientific principles. The paper continues that, in "Ecocentrism and the Anthropocentric Detour", George Sessions summarizes the historical development of how humans came to view nature through an anthropocentric lens.
Table of Contents
First Along the River by Benjamin Kline
Biblical Justifications for Dominating Nature
Seeking New Land
Rational Nature of the New World
Social and Political Thought in the 18th Century
Ecocentrism and the Anthropocentric Detour by George Sessions
Ecocentrism and Primal Cultures
Rise of the Anthropocentric Modern World
Spinoza's Pantheistic Metaphysics and the Romantic Movement
Nineteen and Early-Twentieth Century Origins of Environmentalism
Ecocentrism After World War II
Ecocentrism versus Anthropocentric Survival Environmentalism
Rise of the Long-range DeepEcology Movement
From the Paper "As Christianity spread across Europe, however, this reverence for nature gave way to a desire to exploit nature. By the Middle Ages, scientific and technological changes allowed people to farm inhospitable land and otherwise "tame" nature. A bevy of technology ? grain mills, harnesses, wheel plows and power trains with cranks, among others ? allowed people to cultivate more crops and raise more animals. By increasing the food yield, the population tripled. By the 14th century, Europe had become a capital of trade and technology."
Tags: principles, foundation, nature, needs, human
Abstract In this paper the concept of environmentalism is looked at from a political point of view. Like communism, feminism, and anarchism, environmentalism was born out of people's concerns about the health of society, in this case, such concepts as resource quantity and quality. Covered in this paper are three core principles that have been determined by the course of history, three stages of growth for political application of ecological ideas, and the evolution it has undergone and how it has changed.
From the Paper "It was only relatively recently that humanity had become so concerned with the state of the environment that people began to look at the issue from a political angle. Only when decades of environmental degradation began to affect that quality of life for everyone did certain groups of people want to center their ideology around a sustainable lifestyle. These events in our history were paramount to the naissance of a new political ideology, known as environmentalism. During the last century, environmentalism evolved far beyond what the originators could have envisioned, gaining three core characteristics, increasing the amount of influence on politics, and undergoing changes that would help in creating a case for putting greater emphasis on the Earth. In the last hundred years, environmentalism has become an anti-anthropocentric, post-materialistic, and modern liberal ideology which has evolved from activism to bureaucracy to political parties and has changed its focus from isolated ecosystems to how our world is affected by people's actions."
Abstract This paper discusses the environmental problems of the world, including world hunger and disease, lack of democracy, overpopulation, resource depletion and the destruction of habitat and species. It looks at the ways that people are contributing to these problems and briefly discusses the political aspect of the overwhelming planetary problems. The paper also looks at the role of media in these problems.
Table of Contents:
DeepEcology Social Ecology / Murray Bookchin
Barry Commoner, Michael Coor, And Paul J. Stamler
Ching Lai Cheng
UN Compact & Human Rights In Depth
From the Paper "Ching talks on page 328 about a very important point brought up in this class and that is "over-advertising" (which supposedly stimulates the "consumption of goods"), which in this paper I will call "manipulative" advertising, in solidarity with the instructor. The lies, distortions, and basic con jobs that are part of today's television, movie, magazine and Internet advertising campaigns should be attacked with logic and facts by legislators and other leaders. Much of the advertising on television today is morally disgusting; but while there is no way to really stop it, people in positions of influence should condemn it. The materialistic attitudes in America, unfortunately, are here to stay. But educating young people in schools, churches, and other social venues is more and more necessary. Many millions of young people today are addicted to electronic games (X-Boxes, Nintendo, etc), cell phones, text messaging, emails, movies and other technologies. While they are certainly influenced by advertising perhaps more than any previous generation, at the same time they seem to have more autonomy from their parents than any previous generation as well. Rather than legislate what advertising should be acceptable for the mass marketing of goods and technologies, leaders should encourage parents to teach their children about the natural world, and share values with them that transcend their immediate desire for fun and games."
Abstract This paper discusses the isolation and estrangement of modern man in society in terms of philosophy and architecture. It employs the concepts of architecture of Rem Koolhaas, the sixties architectural group Archigram, deep ecologist Arne Naess, author John Berger and phenomenologist Maurice Merleau-Ponty in order to qualify the author's ideas and reasoning.
From the Paper "Modern society is in many ways an adverse environment for people to live in. Myriad factors assaulting the integration of man into society have resulted in isolation and estrangement leaving man lonely-an island ..."
Tags: isolation, estrangement, Archigram, generic city, walking city, deepecology, wounded cities, Rem Koolhaas, Arne Naess, Ron Herron, John Berger, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, phenomenology
