Abstract
This paper argues that language, a highly social tool, reflects the social reality men have created. It discusses how, by reassessing their power, women have begun the battle for linguistic equality, thus triggering change and variation in language. The paper attempts to give an overview of the evolution of this particular area of research, and in the second part of the paper, details the linguistic androcentricity.

From the Paper
"But before going into further detail, the notion of gender must be defined precisely, because it is at the heart of our discussion. Gender is a very complex concept that is completely different from that of biological sex; while the latter is something given when a baby is born, the former is a construct, something that a person develops all along his/her lifetime. In The Second Sex, Simone De Beauvoir famously wrote, "one is not born a woman, but becomes one." It could actually be argued that it is the same for a man. This quotation exemplifies the notion of gender inasmuch as it shows that it is a social construct, that an individual will 'receive' from the social order an idea of what it is to be a man or a woman, and he or she will take what s/he judges good. "

Tags:linguistic, equality, sex

Abstract
This paper re-examines Plato's "Republic X" as it attempts to denounce the poets from Plato's "perfect" republic. It argues for the expulsion of poetry that is not of lyric or historical importance and in doing so attacks some of the very important ideals that modern poetry is founded upon. The paper takes Plato's arguments that the poet does not actually "create" in his craft and is therefore, basically, a liar, and attempts to further this argument by using quotes from James and Wordsworth in an attempt to re-argue Plato's point.

From the Paper
"In the Republic, Book X, Socrates, through the pen of his brilliant pupil Plato, argues for "our refusal to admit the imitative kind of poetry, for it certainly ought not to be received." (p. 21) However, although Plato is widely regarded as a man of unquestioned genius, and his Republic a work of infinite possibility, this single phrase that sums the whole of the tenth book up has become the topic of heated debate in western literary criticism."

Tags:classics, henry, james, poetics, real, socrates, truth, wordsworth

Abstract
This paper is an in-depth examination of how to deal with the issue of hate speech. The author looks at the Constitution, specifically at the contradictions between the 14th Amendment and the concept of freedom of speech. The author looks at some of the commentary written by Jon Locke, or Jon Stuart Mill, and even Aristotle, on the problem of freedom of speech. The author presents historical and modern-day examples of some of the conflicts that have occurred in trying to determine the parameters of freedom of speech, and hate speech in our society.

From the Paper
"John Locke would probably have weighed in on the importance of limiting the speech before it gets to the point where person feels that he or she is endangered. His empirical system of philosophy emphasized the importance of the experience of the senses in pursuit of knowledge rather than intuitive speculation or deduction. Having come into this world with our minds entirely free of innate conceptions, Locke argued that all human thought is based upon experience. And it is the experiences of minorities within American culture that makes them fear the consequences of hate speech; they have learned through their experiences in the world that bigoted speech easily and often turns into bigoted action (Dunn 48). Another essential part of Locke's philosophy was that all persons are born equal, which would no doubt incline him to value the equal protection of each person under the rule of law (Dunn 121)."

Tags:speech, freedom, constitution, framers, locke, mill, aristotle, hate, democratic, ammendment, fourteenth, hate, internet, practice, law, racist, anti, gay, lesbian, doctrine, free, power, religious, economic, political, minorities, tyranny, choice

Abstract
This paper analyzes prison language, prison inmates and prison gangs. It looks at the use of such dialects in other cultures and situations and how they came about.

From the Paper
"In every culture, language differs in some manner, more in some than others. Language can be defined as a means of communication in which vocal sounds are combined into meaningful units to convey thoughts and feelings. Language can differ from culture to culture no matter how far apart they are from each other or how they differ. Take for instance, ebonics, a specialized language used solely by African-American people in the inner city, and although it is made up mostly of slang, it actually gets taught in some schools. People living in the same block may not understand the language, and the same can be said of prisoners located in our cities, who have their own language. In prison, inmates have a language that is entirely unique and cannot be compared to any other language, called argot, which would sound like meaningless babble to the common person, but this code is necessary knowledge to all prison inmates and guards."

Tags:argot, gangs, language, prison, prisonization, correction, facility, prisoner

Abstract
This paper addresses the issue of multiculturalism and its connection to teaching students for whom English is a second language. It examines two main schools of thought. One believes that although schools should recognize the diversity of cultures in our midst, the primary goal of education should be to teach all children to speak English fluently, as soon as possible, and to make sure they are solidly grounded in mainstream American culture. An alternate view is that instructional approaches should support the development of the primary language and understanding of the primary culture rather than acculturation to mainstream culture.

From the Paper
"Over the past few decades, the United States has become a country of markedly more diverse subcultures than ever before. At the same time, educators have grown in their understanding and appreciation of the richness that diversity can bring to the educational environment. In spite of this, little research has gone into the effects of language instruction on the cultural development and understanding of students for whom English is a second language. The value of multicultural education is recognized at all levels of education in our country. Recognition of cultural differences as an enriching fact does exist in preschool. However, some educators concerned with the needs of "second culture" children believe that culture and language cannot be separated, and that cultural diversity that eliminates the child's primary language is inherently distorting (Phillips & Crowell, 1999a)."

Tags:english, second, instruction, culture, primary

Abstract
This paper begins by explaining that the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is one of the most interesting and influential theories in the field of linguistics and anthropology. The idea that language actually forced people to think in different ways is both fascinating and controversial. The paper shows the ways that this hypothesis opens our understanding of the link between culture and knowledge. The paper includes direct quotes from the hypothesis which it then explains and expands upon.

From the Paper
"The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis "postulated that language not only provided a means of communication but also shaped peoples' perceptions of the world" (McGee and Warms 2000: 370). The hypothesis drew heavily from the ideas and techniques used by linguists, with the methodological concepts developed by the Prague School of Linguistics in the 1920's providing valuable insights into the importance of understanding the conceptual frameworks formed by, and expressed through, the native language (McGee and Warms 2000: 369). The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis was the most influential anthropological adaptation of these linguistic principles, the hypothesis having an enormous impact on anthropology providing a methodological framework emphasizing cultural and linguistic relativity, and influencing several schools of anthropological thought."

Tags:cognition, ethnocsience, language, linguistics, sociolinguistics

Abstract
This paper examines how, in the United States, "bilingualism" is a term that goes far beyond the use of more than one language and how the bilingual child in the American classroom commonly summons forth the image of a child who speaks English poorly, has difficulty learning and keeping up with his peers in school, and needs remedial classes. It discusses how English as a second language (ESL) programs are essential for the bilingual and/or multilingual students and how the bilingual learner in the American classroom deserves the same opportunities as those provided to native English-speaking students. It shows how decade's researchers and educators alike have argued about the best ways to teach ESL, and although many have disagreed on the methods employed by most ESL programs, few can argue about the importance of such programs in the American educational system.

From the Paper
"For the most part, studies conducted to date on classroom interaction and English as a second language learning (ESL) began their examinations into second and foreign language learning from this more traditional perspective. However, "they cross disciplinary borders and draw on theoretical insights and empirical evidence found in areas outside of what has generally been considered the main purview of the ESL field. Their findings join our interests in reconceptualizing second and foreign language learning using a broader, sociocultural perspective of language and learning with practical concerns for nurturing classroom communities of successful second and foreign language learners." "

Tags:monolingual, reading, research, interaction, computers

Abstract
This paper examines how nonverbal communication differs between the genders. This paper focuses on examining three forms of nonverbal communication, facial expressions, eye gazes, and the ability to "decode" the individual meanings behind these gestures. The paper also looks at how men and women use and interpret these gestures differently. The last part of this paper looks at the reasons behind the gender differences in nonverbal communication, focusing on the different socialization of men and women. In this part, the paper also makes recommendations regarding the implications of these gendered forms of nonverbal communication for daily interactions.

From the Paper
"In their seminal work on facial movements, Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen argued that there are six basic human emotions -- fear, surprise, anger, disgust, happiness, sadness and surprise. Furthermore, the researchers argued that these emotions are expressed through universal facial gestures, using the same facial-muscle movements. People from different parts of the world use the same facial expressions, regardless of culture. However, later studies found significant differences in the degrees of expressiveness in the faces of male and female subjects."

Tags:feminsim, marriage, sex, gender, facial, expression, body, language

Abstract
This paper examines how there are several different ways to expose children to a second language. It looks at how some children are exposed to two languages since birth and how others are exposed to a second language once they enter a school program. It discusses how the process of double language acquisition is not so smooth and how there are a few discrepancies in fluency and language confusion to be taken into account.

Outline
Introduction
How Children Learn Two Languages
Stages of Development
Code Switching
Language Mixing
Two Languages, One Sentence: Not a Sign of Confusion
Language Imbalance
Language Loss and Semilingualism
Conclusion

From the Paper
"For some bilingual children, code switching is a normal language phenomenon. While some children acquiring a second language appear to confuse the two languages at first, code switching is a normal aspect of second language acquisition. Young bilingual children tend to insert single items from one language into the other (McClure, 1977), primarily to resolve ambiguities and clarify statements. Children over nine and adults, however, tend to switch languages at the phrase or sentence level, typically to convey social meanings. Studies of code switching in adults show it to be a sophisticated, rule-governed communicative device used to achieve goals such as conveying emphasis or establishing cultural identity."

Tags:semilingualism, code, switching, fluency

Abstract
This paper discusses and analyzes the essay, "Mother Tongue," by Amy Tan. The paper describes how the author uses rhetorical strategies to make her argument, while critiquing cultural standards. The paper states that Amy Tan writes of the different forms of English she uses in her life and illustrates the myriad ways that people express themselves, depending on their audience and their needs.

From the Paper
"Throughout Amy Tan's essay, she compares the English she uses everyday, to the English she uses with family and close friends. She uses the English she has learned as a tool to express the stilted English that makes up her cultural memories and the words of her mother. She writes, "But to me, my mother's English is perfectly clear, perfectly natural. It's my mother tongue. Her language, as I hear it, is vivid, direct, full of observation and imagery. That was the language that helped shape the way I saw things, expressed things, made sense of the world" (Tan). Therefore, some of Tan's earliest memories include memories of her mother's stilted English, which is both comforting and cultural to her. She knows her mother's education and ideas are not stilted, but also recognizes that her limited way of speaking might make her appear "limited" or less than perfect to other listeners."

Tags:culture, education, nuances