Abstract
This paper contains a report on the book, including the author's thesis, evidence she uses to prove her thesis, and how convincing a case she makes. It explains how the author analyzes how ancient civilizations of Asia and Europe expanded from common places of origin. It also questions where these Caucasians came from. It explains that Elizabeth Wayland Barber, an archaeologist at Occidental College, asks herself those questions and begins a fascinating journey along the Silk Road into prehistoric time.

From the Paper
"Barber's book chronicles the mummies found in and around the Urumchi area of Eurasia. The mummies are quite interesting for several reasons, including the vivid and beautiful clothing they wore, and the fact that they appeared to be distinctly Caucasian, rather than Asian or Mongoloid, which one would expect from the area they were found. Early in the book she raises many questions about these fascinating mummies, including where they came from, why they were entombed where they were, and even speculatively, what language they may have spoken. While Barber's archeological specialty is textiles, which she does cover extensively, she takes the study of the mummies much further in this book, as one reviewer noted. "In the process, she takes us through the entire process of modern archeology -- comparative linguistics, tracking down ancient original sources, studying the climate of the time, carbon dating, following artifacts as they move through different cultures..." (St. Philip). Clearly, Barber hopes to solve the mystery of these tantalizing mummies, and take the reader along with her as she makes her own voyage of discovery. What she finds is both fascinating and amazing."

Tags:prehistoric, archeologist, mummy, civilization, caucasian, europe, asia

Abstract
This paper discusses the Calyx-Krater vase found at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. The vase's depiction of a scene and ideas from Homer's "Iliad" is the focus of the paper. However, the history and coloring techniques of Greek vases are also discussed in detail. Illustrations are included with the paper.

From the Paper
"One of the best sources for Greek Mythology is the paintings on Greek Vases. Stories of the gods and heroes are retold again and again in this medium, providing a two dimensional visual reference for the legends. Scenes showing the action of Homeric poems were common, as well as scenes depicting the ideas put forth in these writings. It is the scene of Sarpedon's death that is depicted, yet it is the idea of a hero's death that is inferred on the Calyx-Krater of the Metropolitan Museum."

Tags:greece, homer, iliad, hero

Abstract
This essay discusses the importance of women in ancient Egyptian society in Gay Robin's book "Women in Ancient Egypt". The author examines strong royal women such as Nefertiti, and Nefertiti, and discusses women in Egyptian art. The paper also looks at the subordination of females in Egyptian society, but also how they were honored by their families.

From the Paper:

"Dr. Robins, curator of Egyptian art for the Carlos Museum, reevaluates the roles and importance of women in ancient Egyptian society as depicted in the art and written records of the time. The special role of women in religious rites is also surveyed. Women in Ancient Egypt is a book that shows us what the archaeological riches of Egypt really say about how the women of Egypt lived, both in the public and private eye."??

From the Paper
"Dr. Robins, curator of Egyptian art for the Carlos Museum , reevaluates the roles and importance of women in ancient Egyptian society as depicted in the art and written records of the time. The special role of women in religious rites is also surveyed. Women in Ancient Egypt is a book that shows us what the archaeological riches of Egypt really say about how the women of Egypt lived, both in the public and private eye."

Tags:nefertiti, nefertari, goddess, robins, queen, wife, afterlife

Abstract
This paper looks at the world of the Toltecs, focusing on how they were shaped and how they helped to shape a larger Meso-American cultural grouping that shared a number of salient cultural features. The author also makes particular mention of Toltecs impact on the Aztecs.

From the paper:

?The rise of the Toltec civilization did however mark a distinct turn in some sense because after the rise of the organized Toltec empire the peoples and rulers of this region of Mexico would be more deeply and more consistently marked by a militaristic orientation than those people (culturally related as they were) that preceded them, as Bernal argues?.

Tags:aztec, civilization, nahuatl, uto-aztecan, indigenous, new, world, spanish, western, mexico, tollan, tula, teotihuacan, mixcoatl, ce, acatl, topiltzin, quetzalcoatl, chichimec, culhuacan, chac-mools, monte, alban

Abstract
The paper introduces archaeology, and explains that the concept of dating is central to the science of archaeology. Two broad categories of dating, relative and absolute, are introduced, and four major specific types of dating are presented to the reader; stratigraphy, dendrochronology, obsidian hydration dating, and radiocarbon dating. Each of the four methods are discussed in great detail, each with a closing paragraph devoted to the underlying problems with that particular method. For example, the section on stratigraphy begins with a brief history of the method itself, and introduces such concepts as the law of superposition, temporal sequences of data within stratified deposits, context evaluation, and determining age through the relative position of superimposed artifacts. The negatives of stratigraphy are then discussed, and include deformation, overlapping and reverse stratigraphy, and the method is evaluated on the whole. This format is then applied to the other three types of dating discussed. Finally, a concluding paragraph states that although the four types of dating discussed are infinitely valuable to archaeologists all over the world, there are still problems associated with each that need to be accounted for when using them to address the age of fossilized remains and other artifacts.

From the Paper
"Archaeology is the study of past human cultures, and archaeologists must uncover and interpret material remains in order to reconstruct past ways of life. To understand the purposes of these remains, Archaeologists have the task of constructing a chronology of prehistory, using various dating methods. "Without knowing the age of materials, little can be said about the activity that made them part of the site (David L. Webster, Susan Toby Evans & William T. Sanders, 1993: 128)." Dating is defined as the placement in time of events relative to one another or to any established scale of temporal measurement (Jeffrey S. Dean, 1981: 375). Dating methods used by Archaeologist incorporate the scientific method and have the advantages of objectification, application to isolated cultural sequences, and an expanded span of human prehistory for which an absolute chronology can be built (Keith Brannigan, 1974: 100-101). Scientific methods of dating are invaluable for the prehistoric periods and have revolutionized the archaeologists' ideas about the absolute chronology of the prehistoric culture sequence (Brannigan, 1974: 101), yet each of these scientific methods has many difficulties. Dating techniques fall into two categories relative and absolute and include the following: seriation, ceramic dating, potassium argon dating, thermoluminescence dating, archaeomagnetic dating, fission track dating, stratigraphy, dendrochronology, obsidian hydration dating, and radiocarbon dating. This paper will discuss the latter four methods, with an emphasis on the shortcomings of each."

Tags:absolute, age, archaeology, artifacts, chronology, cultures, dating, endrochronology, fossils, history, human, hydration, measurement, obsidian, past, prehistoric, radiocarbon, relative, remains, stratigraphy, temporal, time

Abstract
This paper discusses how ancient Egypt was one of these first civilizations and how the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt were the first real kings in the world and because they were so powerful, they had the ability to build such astonishing structures such as the great pyramids. It discusses how the Egyptian pyramids are the oldest stone buildings in the world, standing for nearly 5,000 years and how their size, strength and age is the reason pyramids fascinate people to this day. It describes how the Egyptian pyramids were built as tombs for the pharaohs and were said to be the pharaoh's "Castle of Eternity" in order to preserve their bodies for the next life. It examines the architecture, the design, the materials and the strict criteria to which they had to conform as well as the logisitics of how they were built at the time.

From the Paper
"The base of the pyramid had to be a perfect square. This meant that all four sides had to be perfectly even in length. All four angles would have to be perfect right angles. This would prove to be difficult for the large distances that had to be measured. Each side of the Great Pyramid is measured at 755 feet in length. The Egyptians didn't have measuring tapes like we have today. They made these measurements with cords of palm-fiber or flax-fiber, which tended to stretch when used to measure such distances. After this the base would finally be ready for the start of construction. While the base was being prepared and measured stone was already being quarried and brought down the river to be placed near the proposed sight for the pyramid (Pace, Mildred)."

Tags:egypt, pharoah, death, ka, mummy, stone

Abstract
Rituals played a vital role in the wars of the Old Testament: divine consultation, preparatory rites, scare tactics, the herem and purification rites all characterized the Israelite battles. This paper gives a systematic overview of the rituals associated with ancient Israelite warfare in the Old Testament used before, during and after battle.

From the Paper
Consultation with God prior to battle was key in the pre-war rituals of the Old Testament. The Israelites would consult God to determine if they would be successful in their battle. Several methods and techniques were used to communicate with God, including simple consultations, omens/signs (sent from God), mediums, and the use of magical articles such as the ephod. An example of a simple consultation can be seen in 1 Samuel 23:2, where a report has reached David that the city of Keliah has been attacked by the Philistines. Not knowing what to do, David prays to God asking if he should go and rescue the city of Keliah. God answers, "Go and attack the Philistines and save Keliah" (1 Samuel 23:2). This is the simplest form of consultation that is seen in the Israelite pre-war ritual tradition. Here, God's word is given directly from God and not through any outside source requiring interpretation.

Tags:bible, hebrew, pentateuch, samuel, Philistines

Abstract
Ancient civilizations have had a diverse history in respect to homosexuality. Two of the most dominant civilizations of the early Western civilizations were also quite different in how they perceived homosexuality. The Greeks saw a loving, often sexual, relationship between an older man and a younger man or boy to be a nurturing part of citizen-building. The Romans, however, perceived all sex and all male behavior as an opportunity for establishing domination over others. While both cultures accepted homosexuality to differing degrees and for different reasons, it was during the course of the Roman Empire that homosexuality became more frequently unacceptable in an increasing number of contexts. It is the purpose of this paper to examine the differences between Greek and Roman homosexuality.

Abstract
In this paper the writer discusses the Mayan and Aztec cultures in a comparative nature to reveal the similarities in their interrelation to each other. By understanding the connectedness of the two cultures, the writer shows why they are so closely related in their art. Further, the writer shows the way that they made their art for life and religion. The writer also demonstrates that through an understanding of the artistic history of these nations, there is a semblance of influence that can be found in both of them.

Abstract
This paper discusses the ancient Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta in terms of their respective origins, political structures, and societies. The basic similarities and differences between them are analyzed, and conclusions are drawn from the facts ascertained.