Abstract
In the middle of the 19th Century, one of the major proponents of the emigration from the mid-west to the west was Lansford W. Hastings. The paper gives the background of this lawyer who traveled to California and led the Donner Party on their journey. The writer looks at how Hastings dramatically underestimated mileage and led his party into disaster.

From the Paper
"Hastings seized on the information in Fremont's "Report of the Exploring Expedition" and touted it to support his own untested speculations. With his friends Jim Bridger and Vasquez, he encouraged and invited groups stopping at Fort Bridger for rest, repair and provisions, to concentrate their numbers and strength and to take his new route, the "Hastings Cutoff". He promised it would shorten the distance, would have plenty of grass and water and level land. (Schlindler)."

Tags:journey, disaster, tragedy, emigration, provisions

Abstract
This essay looks at the issue of raising of IQ scores so that the IQ cutoff for mental retardation would be raised to 80. The author examines the evidence for and against raising the scores and also discusses the relevancy of IQ scores and how many other variables should be taken into account when evaluating intelligence.

From the Paper
"The debate regarding IQ tests continues to rage into the new millennium. Every decade has a myriad of new studies supporting or contradicting the last accepted theories and studies. here are new studies which indicate that the IQ scores in the United States has risen by 3 points per decade, "indicating that intelligence is not stable but is flexible with regards to environmental influences." However, after vast research, no one knows just exactly what is causing the rise in IQ scores. Moreover, there is an ongoing debate in regards to raising the IQ cutoff scores for the mental retardation assessment. The American Association of Mental Retardation's definition of mental retardation is "a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before age 18.""

Tags:intelligence, quotient

Abstract
This paper first discusses the issue of differentiation of self and triangulation. The paper then examines the Bowen family theory, which aims at adjusting the family emotional processes through the individual's ability to modify the relationship. The family projection, multigenerational transmission and societal emotion processes are also examined and described.

Table of Contents:
Differentiation of Self
Triangles
Nuclear Family Emotional Processes
Family Projection Process
Multigenerational Transmission Process
Sibling Position
Emotional Cutoff
Societal Emotional Process

From the Paper
"This process reverts back to the differentiation model that we previously discussed in the Bowen family model. As all humans have differing levels of differentiation, and these differences vary among family members, there is a resultant long term effect in which the individual subtle differences in differentiation levels between family members become pronounced and accentuated after several generations among family members. In effect, the subtle differences that manifest among individual family members become more pronounced over time as generations of emotional family patterns within families are passed down. These differences can manifest as characteristics that in begin passed own have resulted in conditioning processes between two member of a relationship that may prove too disparate, leading to the end of the marriage."

Tags:differentiation of self, triangulation, individual development, relationship, nuclear family, therapy

Abstract
The paper explains that family systems therapy is concerned with the family unit and how the members function with each other in the multiple systems that exist in order to build their relationships. The paper looks at how Coco and Courtney (1998) state that in family systems theory "families can be characterized on a continuum of differentiation levels" (p. 485) and these levels may include the emotional system, family projection, emotional cutoff, generational systems, sibling systems and societal systems (Coco & Courtney, 1998, p. 485). The paper discusses how the theory then considers that when tensions arise within the family they are generally caused by conflict that exists between two people, which is especially true in the occurrence of marital conflict (Coco & Courtney, 1998, p. 485). The paper describes how the theory calls on the counselor to evaluate where the tensions within the family exist, what factors are contributing to those factors and the most appropriate methods for addressing change in the family.

Tags:family, systems, theory

Abstract
This paper discusses the Bowen family model as it relates to family units, particularly those of couples. The paper explains the theories in the model and points out how they take into account account the familial situation, both current and past, and its vast power over the life of an individual. The paper concludes that the Bowen model is of great utility in the field of therapy, in that it recognized the vast importance of family upon the function of the individual members thereof, and devised methods to establish the most effective therapy possible.

Outline:
Differentiation of Self
Triangles
Nuclear Family Emotional Processes
Family Projection Process
Multigenerational Transmission Process
Sibling Position
Emotional cutoff
Societal Emotional Process
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Differentiation of self emanates from the needs required by an individual, and in the realm of health development, to separate one's own intellectual and emotional functioning from that of the family unit or iteration thereof. The family is a unit because it operates as a system. (Bowen, Kerr 10) This unit may be defined as a husband and wife traditionally, although alternate "families" are fully possible, with the prime feature irregardless of the particular situation being the melding of the individual "I's" involved in the relationship into the singular "we". This situation of maintaining distinct separateness in the face of a cohesive unit is one of conflict, with an individual's reaction sometimes being so acute as to turn into violence due to the individual's incapacity to deal with a perceived lack of a sense of oneself within a relationship."

Tags:self, differentiation, triangulation, multigenerational, transmission, family, projection, birth, order, emotions, couples, divorce

Abstract
The author takes a look at the two newest declared nuclear powers: India and Pakistan. The author analyzes the potential solutions for resolving the conflict as well as short-term safety concerns. The author examines the CTBT, a Fissile Materials Production Cutoff Treaty, Permissive Action Links, and nuclear disarmament as potential solutions before arriving at his conclusion.

From the Paper
"Albert Einstein once remarked that, "Bullets kill men, but atomic bombs kill cities. A tank is a defense against a bullet, but there is no defense against a weapon that can destroy civilization. ... Our defense is law and order" (Calaprice, 2000, p. 177). The Nuclear situation that exists between India and Pakistan is one that deserves much more attention from US policymakers than it currently receives. The United States should play a significant role in any nuclear regime change that would take place in India or Pakistan. Because the United States is a trusted negotiator by both sides, it has a unique role that it can play (Bajpai, 2003, p. 125). The options that the US could pursue are not all direct actions. Sometimes the best way to influence policy is not through coercion but through leadership and example setting. While many options exist, the four policy choices that should be examined more closely are CTBT ratification, a Fissile Materials Production Cutoff Treaty, sharing Permissive Action Links with Pakistan or both countries, and finally nuclear disarmament as set forth by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)."

Tags:arms, control, ctbt, disarmament, fmct, non, npt, pals, proliferation, treaty, weapons

Abstract
The paper explains that the Bowen family systems theory (BFST) regards the family unit as a single entity; if there are malfunctions with the family, BFST identifies that there are problems inherent within some aspect of the family. The paper identifies four components of BFST and addresses a case study in which these components are applied and used to asses the status of an affected individual from a troubled family background.

Outline:
Introduction
Four Components of BFST
Analysis of the Case Study

From the Paper
"Bowen Family Systems Theory (BFST) regards the family unit as a single entity; much like the components of the body form the whole of the person, in BFST the individual family members form the whole of the family (Searight, 1997; Titelman, 1998). If there are problems or malfunctions with the family, BFST identifies that there are problems inherent within some aspect of the family (Searight, 1997; McGoldrick, Serson, & Shellenberger, 1999). This could be indicative of problems held by one family member that is beyond the scope of immediate family life (e.g.: conflict for a parent in the work environment) or could suggest issues that are localized within the immediate family setting itself."

Tags:differentiation, family, projection, emotional, cutoff, sibling, position