Abstract
This paper examines Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian writing systems. Egypt developed a hieroglyphic system while Mesopotamia developed the earlier, and ultimately more widespread, cuneiform. The distinctive and significant differences between the two systems are contrasted.

Abstract
This paper examines Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs. The two earliest known types of writing are compared and contrasted in terms of origin and development, and usage.

Abstract
In this paper the author looks back in time to the origins of writing and notes and shows that there is new archaeological evidence to suggest that the cuneiform system of writing existed even prior to the Sumer. The author then moves on to examine Egyptian forms for writing and various Semitic languages.

From the paper:

?More than 300 clay tablets with a variety of images on them have already been discovered by Dreyer. Among the symbols found on the tablets are scorpions with trees, scorpions with plants, stylized birds, dogs and fish and various other decorative plant-forms?.

Tags:cuneiform, sumerian, egypt, abydos, guenther, dreyer, scorpions, akkadian, hittites, ideography, logography, syllabic, rebus, semitic, phoenicians, hebrew, aramaic, hieroglyphics

Abstract
The paper relates that when the ancient city of Uruk in southern Mesopotamia was first discovered and unearthed in the early 1900s, many archeologists had no idea about the riches to be found there; the earliest form of cuneiform, seal impression, enormous buildings and temples and other structures, and a city area that extended over 200 acres. The paper shows how Uruk has become the key to a better understanding of the Near East and Mesopotamia and Sumeria in particular.

From the Paper
"The site of ancient Uruk, now often referred to as Warka is a key to ancient Mesopotamian culture not merely because of the size of the ancient city, but also because of "its virtually uninterrupted occupation....and by the rich archeological and epigraphic material it has yielded" (Roux 1986 68). The Near East in ancient days was an area mostly in turmoil. Wars and occupations, overthrows of dynasties, natural and man-made disasters often disrupted the locations of ancient cities which, had they remained intact, might have provided a far greater understanding of those times and its people."

Tags:mesopotamian, culture, excavation

Abstract
This paper explains that, given the current lives of individuals in many countries of the Middle East and Africa, it is amazing to learn that the famous Hammurabi Code, which governed the relationship of men to each other almost 2000 years B.C.E., was created by a ruler of Babylon. Next, the author describes the discovery of a stela, in Turkey in 1901, upon which the code was written in cuneiform. The paper relates several of the 282 Hammurabi laws, which mirror some of the laws in today's society. The Hammurabi Code very precisely and comprehensively accounts for almost all possible human faults of society and of family and includes appropriate penalties.

From the Paper
"While slavery was prevalent and easily accepted, given the times, Slaves also had protection under the law. Children of slaves resulting from the marriage of sex between a free individual and a slave were considered free, the stigma of slavery having been removed. A free woman who was married to a slave could retain all the property from her own dowry and her slave-husband's assets. If the slave died, then the property was divided: one half was given to the man who owned the slave; the rest of the property was retained by the woman to help her raise her children."

Tags:stealing, false accusation, abandonment, sellers and buyers' rights, rape

Abstract
This paper compares the styles and symbolism in these two great epics -Homer's "Iliad" and "Gilgamesh." It describes how "Iliad" is a long rhythmic poem stretched to many books and volumes; while "Gilgamesh" is a highly significant Middle Eastern literary work, written in cuneiform on 12 clay tablets about 2000 BC. It discusses how and why "Gilgamesh" is considered as a role model for future epics like Iliad.

From the Paper
"Iliad, "an epic poem" by Homer "of the Trojan War" (Bergerud: 37). On the other hand, Gilgamesh is that epic poem which revolves around the historical incidents pertaining to the city of Eruk, today popularly referred to as Iraq (Gilgamesh Epic). Moreover, Iliad discusses the causes that led to the lengthy bloodshed of ten years (Trojan War) between the people of Troy and Greeks through a detailed outline of the events and the heroic efforts of Achilles the protagonist of the poem. The hero of Gilgamesh is called Gilgamesh. Just like Achilles, Gilgamesh is also the son of a goddess. Furthermore, both the epics though written in different times, demonstrate the power of love, feeling of brotherhood, closely knitted bonds and friendly relationships among the salient characters. Gilgamesh displays the beauty as well as the strengths of the relationship that Gilgamesh and Enkidu share. Similarly, Iliad shows the strong bond of affection, unconditional love among two altruistic friends and the suffering that Achilles goes through after the unexpected and the untimely death of his beloved friend Patroclus. However, the relationship of Gilgamesh and Enkidu is different when compared to the relationship of Achilles and Patroclus. This is because, Gilgamesh and Enkidu initially were the worst opponents of each other whereas Patroclus and Achilles shared true companionship since the beginning."

Tags:eruk, troy, greek, trojan, achilles, enkidu

Abstract
This paper explains that "The Epic of Gilgamesh" (anonymous), which was discovered in the mid-nineteenth century in the ruins of the great library at Nineva, was written on twelve clay tablets in the ancient Sumerian writing known as cuneiform and dated to 650 B.C. but pieces of the tablets were from 2000 B.C.. The author points out that these tablets are not necessarily the original writing, since certain linguistics believe that the story was written well before 2000 B.C., which is a definite possibility considering the fact that "The Epic of Gilgamesh" was originally an oral tradition passed down through generations. The paper relates that a major interest is that the flood written in "Gilgamesh" is almost identical to the flood story found in the Book of Genesis in the Bible.

From the Paper
"The story of "Gilgamesh" is essentially related to the ancient Sumerian culture, mainly since it is thought by some that the King truly did exist and the story is based on his real life rule. In the story, Gilgamesh rules the ancient Mesopotamian town of Uruk which actually existed at some point in time. He is said to be the son of the god Ninsun and a mortal father, however, historians have not obtained clear details on that matter. Although it is unclear whether or not King Gilgamesh actually existed, the story still acted as in "instructive text" for the people of Mesopotamia."

Tags:nineva, sumerian, oral, tablets, flood

Abstract
Mesopotamia was the land of four primary civilizations: the Sumerian, the Akkadians, the Babylonian and the Assyrians. The paper shows that the Hebrews, like the Akkadians, belong to a group of people known as Semites and from there we can see the influence of Mesopotamian culture in some of the Hebrews traditions. The paper shows that during the same time, civilization began in Egypt. A distinct difference can be seen in the social, religious and political system from Mesopotamia and the link between the two civilizations are the Hebrews. The paper examines historical documents from all three societies - "The Epic of Gilgamesh", first passed on by word of mouth and later recorded by the Sumerians around the third millennium and finally edited and written down in cuneiform by the Babylonians; "Instructions of Kagemni", a set of etiquette amongst Egyptian noblemen and government executives; and finally the Holy Hebrew Bible ("Tanach"). The paper shows how the three societies are linked through proof in these documents.

From the Paper
""Hymn to Aton" reflects the political and social status of the time and adds to the importance of the aid of god to proper management of a territory and the people within. This was the first and only attempt of a Egyptian ruler to a monotheistic society. It could be argued that this could be an isolated attempt or that the Hebrews somehow influenced Amenhotep IV to this change. It is very important to consider this possibility since it would make the transferring of similar traditions between the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians and the Hebrews civilizations understandable.

The role of women is important and well respected in Egyptian civilization, perhaps more than Mesopotamian. The "Hymn to Aton" recognizes the importance of both sexes for procreation. This document is used just as the "Laws of Hammurabi" to better control his territory at a time when the clergy and the multitude of gods and temples are gaining popularity and, obviously, control."

Tags:Enkidu, Humbaba, Ishtar, Proverbs, Genesis

Abstract
In this paper, the writer examines the Genesis account of Noah's flood story. The writer compares and contrasts the story of Noah with the flood recounted in the Epic of Gilgamesh. In this article, the writer also discusses the flood stories of other Ancient Near Eastern cultures, such as China.

From the Paper
"There are few myths that are as prevalent in all societies and religions as the myth of a great flood that washes clean the earth and cleanses it of evil and sin. As Frank Lorey explains 'There have been numerous flood stories identified from ancient sources scattered around the world'. The stories that were discovered on cuneiform tablets which comprise some of the earliest surviving writing have obvious similarities. Two of the oldest and most identical accounts of flood mythology in the Ancient Near ... "

Tags:God, religion, customs, culture, faith, man, Noah, Utnapishtim, Atrahasis, mythology, Moses, Yahweh, Hebrews, Babylonians, cuneiform

Abstract
This paper begins by providing a history of the evolution of zero and discusses the origin of the symbol. It then discusses the origins of the concept of "zero" and how this was perceived differently by various ancient cultures such as the Egyptians, the Mayans and the Babylonians. It then focuses specifically on the "Babylonian zero" and how this differed in concept from other figures at the time. The paper includes several diagrams and pictures.

From the Paper
"The symbol zero evolved into its present form after quite a number of transformations. The idea of how the symbol was devised also harbors a few contradictory ideas. Opinions range from it being a dot originally, replaced by a circle with a dot in the center and then maturing to the current form, an oval shape that we all are familiar with. (Pearce, I., 2002). The Egyptian zero that evolved has also been equated with the hieroglyph for beauty, and that of the human windpipe, heart and lungs. (Williams, S. W., 2002)"

Tags:astronomers, cuneiform, egyptians, hindus, mayans, mesopotamia, egytian, sexagesimal, system, tablets, value