Abstract The paper focuses on the theory that 'distance' between two countries is manifested along the following four basic dimensions: are cultural, administrative, geographic and economic. The paper first assesses the utility of these dimensions of distance as a strategic tool for companies seeking to develop international markets and supply chains. The paper then shows how linguistic and culturaldistance is the most severe of all the four dimensions, followed by administrative, geographical and finally economic distance as the least in the range of severity.
Outline:
Objective
Introduction
Attributes of CulturalDistance Attributes of Administrative Justice
Attributes of Geographical Distance Attributes of Economic Distance Summary and Conclusion
From the Paper "Ghemawat states that the attributes of a country's culture "determine how people interact with on another and with companies and institutions." (2001) Ghemawat holds that trade between countries who have a common language "will be three times greater than between countries without a common language." (2001) This sounds reasonable as trade is much enhanced by the ability to communicate information about the product and in discussing pricing of the product. One can certainly imagine the difficulty of trade negotiations in which neither party understands the other and product and pricing information is obscure or even unknown due to barriers of language. Ghemawat (2001) states that while some attributes of cultural are easily "perceived and understood...Others are more subtle." For example, there are social norms, described as "deeply rooted system[s] of unspoken principles that guide individuals in their everyday choices and interactions" which are "often nearly invisible" and this is true even for those "who abide by them." (Ghemawat, 2001)"
Abstract This paper discusses the concept of psychic distance, which, according to the paper, has become a much-utilized term in international business and one of the key ingredients in determining the right markets for entry. The paper first shows how researchers have not yet developed a consistent approach with reliable variables for developing a psychic distance strategy. The then paper discusses Hofstede's five cultural elements that impact psychic distance but explains the many different variables that must also be considered at different stages of the relationship's development. The paper concludes that the most important aspect for businesses to keep in mind when they are attempting to put together a cross-cultural strategic plan is that they have to focus on their own, specific situation.
From the Paper "The natural occurrence of globalization is bringing the world increasingly closer together through the exchange of culture, products and services, information, and knowledge. Over the last several decades, the speed of this global connection has become much greater, because of continual technology, communications, and science advancements. Research has recognized that within this global interaction, countries will begin the internationalization process with some nations that are called "psychically close" before venturing to more distant countries at a psychic distance. This concept of psychic distance significantly impacts cross-cultural business ventures. However, researchers have not yet developed a consistent approach with reliable variables for developing a psychic distance strategy. Recently, the only agreement point is that a number of different variables, besides Hofstede's cultural factors, impact psychic distance. Businesses have to look at their own particular parameters to determine the best way of proceeding at each stage of the cross-cultural relationship development."
Tags: Hofstede, culture, relationship, marketing, international, business
This dissertation is an extensive report of research to analyze the internationalization strategies taken by Xerox, Ricoh and Canon to respond to challenges posed by China's emerging market.
Abstract This paper explains that one of the major findings of this research to analyze the internationalization strategies taken by Xerox, Ricoh and Canon to respond to challenges posed by China's emerging market was that culturaldistance was a far less significant internationalization challenge in the Chinese office electronics industry than the literature review suggested. The author points out that the research confirmed the significance of administrative heritage and organizational structure as key internationalization challenges that firm's face including those in the Chinese office electronics industry. The paper indicates that the internationalization process leads to a network of international market activities through foreign direct investment and other forms of international business involvement and may result in the inter-dependencies of all multinational corporations in one host country, which is one important aspect of internationalization.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Literature Review
Internationalization Challenges
Local Market Disadvantages
Disproportionate Operating Costs and a Denial of Benefits Afforded to Domestic Firms
CulturalDistance and Market Entry Modes
Political Bargaining and Positioning
Institutional Differences and Corruption
Local Density and WFOE Performance
Organizational Capabilities
Administrative Heritage
Organizational Structure
Internationalization Strategies
Exporting
International Licensing Agreements
International Joint Ventures and Strategic Alliances
Wholly-Owned Foreign Enterprise
Doing Business in China
The Global Office Electronics Industry
Research Design
Case Study Approach
Data Collection
Framework for Analysis
Case Studies
Short-Term Challenges
CulturalDistance and Organisational Capabilities
Political Bargaining and Positioning
Long-Term Challenges
Administrative Heritage
Organizational Structure
China Strategies of Office Electronics Firms
Discussion
Short-Term Challenges
Long-Term Challenges
Limitations
Conclusion
From the Paper "There are many local market conditions that could test a company's resolve to enter a new and unfamiliar market, which present themselves as key challenges to firms. The initial challenge comes in the form of entry barriers. Jennifer Rankin (2003) interprets these barriers in terms of the huge investment and risks that the undertaking entails. Moreover, the return on investment may take years to materialize. So if the company is a penny-pincher afraid to take risks and also in a hurry to recoup its investment, it might as well forget internationalization."
Abstract This paper introduces the topic of distance education and long distance education training for faculty. The paper defines distance education, examines the virtual university and discusses the need for instructional support services for faculty. The paper also covers the concept of lifelong learning, distance learning materials, the virtual learning experience and looks at the student population of distance learning.
From the Paper "The following research paper presents the topic of faculty training for distance education. Within this context the following relevant issues are presented: introduction to distance education, outcomes of distance education, quality ratings of distance education, student faculty and administration ratings of distance education, faculty instruction in distance education and conclusions."
Abstract This paper looks at some of the problems encountered with distance learning programs and compares distance learning to traditional face-to-face learning. The paper discusses problems with technology, cost, attrition rates and student-teacher interaction. The paper discusses some of the benefits of distance learning and when and why it can be necessary, but argues that traditional learning is better.
From the Paper "With the increase in frustration with the education system, as well as large numbers of people going back to school to get degrees many years after they started and dropped out, homeschooling as well as online and distance learning have gained popularity (Stull & Ryan, 2000, p.1). Traditional or face-to-face learning has generally the more accepted and mainstream approach to education in the US, as well as the most accessible. The teacher and students are in the same location and interact in real time, whereas distance education consists of "all forms of learning and teaching in which those who learn and those who teach are for all or most of the time in different locations" which includes online or internet-based education as well as older formats that involve mailing assignments back and forth (Moore, 2003, p. ix). "
Abstract This paper discusses the meaning of distance learning, the types of learning, where the learning takes place, what types of courses are offered, accreditation of distance learning institutions, and predictions for its potential growth in the future.
From the Paper "If a person completes coursework away from an actual school campus this is known as distance learning. The term distance learning covers many different types of learning and includes classes taken online over the internet ..."
Abstract The writer of this paper details the manner in which various values and cultural traditions can impact an individual's or group's beliefs, attitudes and actions with respect to their day-to-day existence. The writer contends and explains how cultural differences affect communication, interaction and actions amongst different people. In an environment where little cultural diversity exists, it is likely that cultural differences will have little or no impact on human relations. This paper also discusses the issue of cultural differences in the workplace. Cultural diversity can lead to conflict as well as collaboration within the workplace, depending on whether or not people are willing to embrace people that are culturally different. This paper examines the impact of cultural diversity in the classroom, where teachers are being asked to become more culturally literate so that they can better address the needs of all their students, rather than the few who fall into one or two categories. This paper also explores the issue of students with varying cultural backgrounds that have different perceptions of learning and communicating and the manner in which their needs are met.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Analysis of Cultural Traditions and Human Relations
Conclusions
References
From the Paper "Cultural differences even impact students in the classroom. More and more teachers are being asked to become more culturally literate so that they can better address the needs of all their students, rather than the few who fall into one or two categories. Students with varying cultural backgrounds have different perceptions of learning and communicating, thus may have a difficult time achieving in a classroom that does not recognize their cultural differences and methods of learning. For students to be successful in a culturally diverse environment, teachers must work to improve communications and the methods they use to teach, to ensure that they are addressing the needs of a diverse population. To understand how cultural differences impact human relations one must also understand what culture is."
A review of the articles "Theories of Culture" by Roger M. Keesing and "Marking Boundaries - Culture as Category Work" - Qualitative Inquiry by Anne Ryen and David Silverman.
Abstract This paper discusses articles by Roger M. Keesing and Anne Ryen and David Silverman on what culture is, and how we study it, and see what is different in one culture, as opposed to a different culture, or in a small aspect of culture. The paper explains that Keesing seems to be more inclined to see culture in dynamic ways, as always changing or developing, or that has to do with thinking processes, where Ryen and Silverman discuss culture in more material terms that can affect how people of different cultures understand each other. The paper also discusses how Keesing looks at cultures as structural systems so that the scholar will look at how a culture or a structure began and how it continues to influence human life. The writer believes that Ryen and Silverman seem more tied up in how an outsider looks at a culture, the dynamics of importance of what go on between human beings, as individuals, as opposed to the cultural system that Keesing tried to understand. The writer concludes that both articles manage to get across the care that must be taken when researching cultures that are not one's own, but the writer feels that Keesing's work is still not out-dated.
Outline:
Introduction
Theories of Culture The Human Factor
Last Remarks
From the Paper "A culture may adapt because new technology or kinds of organization have come along, or it may change so that a people survive, as in cultures that begin to conserve something so that they can survive in their environment. A desert people, for instance, may show a culture that is protective of water, does not waste water, or whose art shows themes of happiness as the coming of the rain, or safely getting to a place where water is available. Keesing then begins to look at ideational theories of culture that have to do with cognitive systems and how people decide what is special, appealing or what must be done, as all can influence culture. (1974:77f)."
Abstract The question, What is popular culture and how does it relate to Eastern and Western societies? is an apparently simple query that conceals a complex range of social cultural and economic aspects. This essay examines this question, beginning with a provisional definition of popular culture and an attempt to distinguish it from other cultural forms such as high culture and mass culture. The thesis is argued that popular culture is, in its fundamental elements, a commercial culture that is dependent to an extraordinary degree upon the mass media as a technological vehicle for its messages and products.
Abstract The paper states that it is not complicated to find some globalized places such as airline terminals, international hotels or CNN business news revealing the effects of globalization and its repercussions on our understanding of culture in the modern world. The paper relates that through the growing of global interconnections and the processes of ideas and global goods crossing national borders, cultures fuse across the globe. The paper also discusses the presence of English as an international language, and a homogenization of culture. The paper confirms that, culture is a set of values and practices characterized by its particularity, which nevertheless needs universal criteria as a reference to justify this particularity. It is also crucial to define culture as an "encompassing" concept and to keep in mind that it is difficult to know what is cultural.
From the Paper "In addition, a shared global culture is also relevant as a global dissemination of an American or Western culture. Indeed the processes of globalization are providing fuel for a cultural imperialism, that is to say a global culture liable to be a hegemonic culture. Thus the assertion of a shared global culture seems to be linked to what Friedman describes as "the increasing hegemony of particular central cultures, the diffusion of American values, consumers goods and lifestyles" (Friedman, 1994: 195). The diffusion of dominant standard icons and references such as MacDonald's, Coca-Cola leads to think about an obvious Americanization. In a word, cultures are both confronted by a global dominance of the western culture and by the practices of global capitalism. The result is probably a decrease of cultural differences: a process which undeniably worked to the advantage of the USA and others Western nations. A striking example of this tendency of cultural imperialism is the United Nations Educations Scientific and Cultural Organization's call for a "new world information and communication order" and its politics on global culture."
Abstract This paper presents a study to identify pertinent traits that characterize effective leaders in various societal settings. The paper relates that the mixed methodology used in this study is (1) a qualitative analysis of the relevant peer-reviewed and scholarly literature concerning the specific relationship between leadership styles, organizational culture and the larger society and (2) a review and synthesis of various case studies concerning the impact of leadership on cross-cultural organizational performance. The paper includes a summary of the major aims and objectives of the study and an analysis of implications for leaders and recommendations for organizations such as "treat all people fairly".
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Aims and Objectives
Significance of the Study
Rationale of the Study
Literature Review
Background and Overview
Definitions of Culture Table: Bureaucratic, Innovative and Supportive Organizational Cultures Table: Family-Owned and Operated Organizational Cultures Table: Masculine and Collectivist Organizational Cultures Cultural Aspects of Organizational Leadership
Relationship between Organizational Leadership and Society
Table: Types of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
Table: Potential Reasons Why Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs) Influence Work Group And/Or Organizational Performance
Discussion
Chapter Summary
Methodology
Description of the Study Approach
Data-Collection
Sample
Setting
Ethical Considerations
Evaluative Action Plan
Instruments/Measurements
Chapter Summary
Results and Presentation of Findings
Discussion, Implications and Recommendations
Results and Presentation of Findings
Introduction
Sample
Studies
Table: Recapitulation and Summary of Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles Consulted
Setting
Ethical Considerations
Evaluative Action Plan
Table: Noblit and Hare's Meta-Ethnographic Comparative Method
Instruments/Measurements
Chapter Summary
Discussion, Implications and Recommendations
Introduction
Summary of Major Aims and Objectives
Implications
Recommendations
Limitations
From the Paper "These responsibilities frequently involve decision processes that are unstructured, complex, and ambiguous; the studies to date indicate that the outcomes of such decision processes can be affected greatly by the characteristics of the team and its members.
"Taken together, the foregoing suggests that an organization's culture is highly influenced by its top leadership, but workers play a reciprocal role by helping them achieve the organization's goals and keeping it competitive."
Abstract The writer of this paper critically analyzes the ways in which De Munch and Korotayev start out by explaining that it is difficult to research across cultures because of "cross-cultural pollenization" that is, one culture tends to absorb some traits of the other. They point out that without adequate controls, the research can give both false confirmations of the hypothesis as well as false negatives. This paper is a negative critique of Cultural Units in Cross-Cultural Research.
From the Paper "The first group might look culturally diverse at first: 4 Spanish; 4 Iraqi; 1 Russian; 1 Estonian; 1 Javanese; 1 Ganda; one Greek; one Maronite-Lebanese. However, this group had significant cultural similarities, which the authors of course knew because they contrived the group. Some of the clerics were Catholic and therefore celibate. Others were Moslem and allowed more than one wife. It is hard to imagine how this example sheds any light on either cross-cultural studies or statistical and research methods."
Abstract This paper is an in-depth discussion of multiculturalism, it defines it and states that an entirely different view of culture is needed in the intellectual discourse of society. Elst analyzes culture using the example of analyzing sex. Elst makes it clear in his analysis that pluralities of identity are the norm, that everyone is multi-ethnic and multi-racial in some fashion. Finally, the paper concludes that each individual should study and redefine his own culture.
From the Paper "Even in the current, mainstream political debate over what constitutes ?multiculturalism,? it is common cultural parlance to view culture as a static entity. Multiculturalism is defined as the manner in which more cultures are integrated into the fabric of the dominant discourse, rather than as a way of deconstructing notions of how culture itself is perceived and misperceived. As the title of Dirk Van Der Elst's book Culture as Given, Culture as Choice, suggests, however, framing the debate in such a fashion is not necessarily the most radical choice. Elst suggests that nothing really exists as ?culture,? rather culture itself is a constructed, socially produced norm."
Tags:cultural, multiculturalism, Dirk, Van, Der, Elst, social, norm
