Abstract The paper explores the history and development of the contextual cueing effect. The paper explains that this is an information retrieval process that appears to have strong connections to the environment in which stimuli occur, the time in which stimuli occur, the previous cultural experiences of the perceiver and the memory of the perceiver. The paper looks at discoveries in contextual cuing in different areas and the limitations and implications of contextual cueing in theory and in practice.
Outline:
Introduction
History and Development of Contextual Cueing Contextual Cueing For Real-World Scenarios
Limitations and Implications for the Research
Summary
From the Paper "The initial research into contextual cueing occurred in 1998, when Chun and Jiang sought to establish whether visual task orientation was governed in part by what they referred to as "global context" (p. 28). The researchers started from the perspective that the complexity of visual images is such that "only a small subset of this information is available to conscious or working memory at any given moment" (p. 28). Yet despite the limited information available, the image was still readily assimilated and processed by the viewer. Moreover, Chun and Jiang (1998) noted that earlier research efforts had demonstrated that visual accuracy was contingent upon traits other than straightforward visual perception, such as training in sight and information processing."
Abstract This paper looks at signaling theory which deals with the relationship between extrinsic product cues and perceived quality, and how high-quality firms can use this information to their advantage. The effects of country-of-origin, price, price promotions and brand names is discussed. The author examines various theories such as that of Aaker and Jacobson of perceived quality and looks at various corporations as evidence. Included are tables and graphs to explain how the theories work in practice.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Signaling Theory
Country-Of-Origin Effects
Price
Price Promotions
Brand Name
Store Name
Brand Alliances
Market Share
Advertising
Warranties
Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research
From the Paper "Quality has been broadly defined as "excellence" or "superiority" (Zeithaml 1988). Though many definitions exist, most can be classified into either perceived quality (from the consumer's viewpoint) or objective (substantive) quality, where quality is measured as conformance to some set of specifications or requirements. Many, such as Tom Peters, have theorized that the lack of quality produced by firms in the U.S. has lead to its declining competitiveness vis-?-vis products from other countries like Germany and Japan. They cite segments like the auto industry where U.S. manufacturers have lost significant market share at the expense of better-built cars from Japan and Europe. In other markets, like the television industry, U.S. firms have been driven out of the market completely. One of the most predominant explanations for this relates to U.S. managers? fixation on short-term profits and meeting analysts? expectations at the expense of long-term investments like brand building, R&D, customer satisfaction and of course, quality improvements. Not only do these "soft" investments hurt immediate profits and quarterly performance, but their long-term financial benefits are difficult to quantify and therefore, easy for managers to dismiss. While this may sound reasonable, Aaker and Jacobson (1994) challenge this conventional thinking. "
Abstract This paper presents a proposal for a research study that would concentrate on the very initial stage of dating or romantic relationships in which both women and men have not been acquainted. The proposed study will focus on the strategies that both women and men use to seduce the desired counterpart. The proposed study will also look at the habitual usage of nonverbal cues such as eye contact, smiles and gender related body language aimed to initiate the dating process.
Table of Contents:
Proposal
Conclusion
From the Paper "Much research has been conducted on dating habits within the field of interpersonal relations. Studies on the same have ranged from the initial stages of dating (Riggio & Woll, 1984; Bell & Rollof, 1991) to the following and final stages concluding in permanent relationships (Gaines, 1996). This present study will primarily concentrate on the very initial stage of dating or romantic relationships in which both women and men have not been acquainted. Moreover, the study will narrow down its focus even more, on the strategies both women and men use to seduce the desired counterpart which they are not acquainted to. In other words, the research will concentrate on the very initial stage of dating where both sides have not met each other thus investigating the habitual usage of nonverbal cues such as eye contact, smiles and gender related body language (flipping the hair) aimed to initiate the dating process."
Abstract This paper reports that nonverbal communication is an important part of a dating relationship, in both nonsexual relationships and in the initiation of sexual behavior within relationships. The paper goes on to assert that, prior to escalating a relationship from a purely dating one, to one of a sexual nature, relationships must be assessed thoroughly, combining both verbal and nonverbal communication cues, for an optimum outcome.
From the Paper "A positive sexual relationship between couples stems from successful communication regarding sexual and nonsexual preferences when intimate. In 1999, a study was conducted using men and women who were in dating relationships, but not dating each other. They were interviewed regarding sexual preferences and communication of their likes and dislikes. The research indicated that individuals are much more communicative about their sexual preferences when they are in a relationship in which communication was encouraged, not only about sex, but also about all aspects of the dating relationship. It was also determined that couples who have a nonverbal agreement and understanding about sex can be more effective and preferred over open discussion about sexual likes and dislikes."
Abstract This paper discusses how communication problems in the workplace are bound to arise and businesses and employees must understand how to handle these problems. The paper details such problems as poor listening skills, poor oral communication, the inability to understand nonverbal cues and communication problems as they relate to workplace diversity. The author details the outcome of these problems: Work related stress, which leads to a decrease in productivity, a decline in customer satisfaction and the loss of a business. The author then details the solutions to these problems: Specificity, listening, depersonalization, mediation and temporary separation from coworkers.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Listening
Oral Communication
Nonverbal Cues Communication and Diversity
Outcomes of Communication Problems in the Workplace
Resolving Communications Problems in the Workplace
Conclusion
From the Paper "Business communications is an essential component in the success of any firm (Harris 1993). Effective communication in the workplace allows for the free flow of information and the completion of tasks in a timely and efficient manner. On the contrary, poor communication in the workplace can create a plethora of problems and encourages discord amongst employees and managers (Carmichael 1996). The purpose of this discussion is to examine communications problems in the workplace. More specifically, we will focus on areas such as listening, oral communication, nonverbal communication, and communication issues as it relates to workplace diversity. We will also discuss the outcomes of communication problems in the workplace and the steps that can be taken to resolve communications problems in the workplace."Communication problems in the workplace are bound to arise and businesses and employees must understand how to handle these problems. These problems often include such things as poor listening skills, poor oral communication, the inability to understand nonverbal cues and communication problems as they relates to workplace diversity. The outcome of these problems is work related stress, which leads to a decrease in productivity, a decline in customer satisfaction and the loss of a business. These problems can be resolved through specificity, listening, depersonalization, mediation, and temporary separation from coworkers.
Abstract This paper explains that, although a child's family is the most influential force in a child's social development, environmental factors, such as friends, school, church, and other social organizations, also have an effect on socialization. The author describes many types of social organizations, including fraternities and sororities, religious groups, fine arts groups, and sports groups, whose members share similar goals and interests and play a role in the socialization process. The paper states that what makes us human is our ability to pick up societal norms and social cues from people and things that exists outside the boundaries of the immediate family.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Definition of Socialization
Social Organizations
Fraternities and Sororities
Religious Groups
Fine Arts Groups
Sports Groups
Sociological Analysis of What Makes Us Human
From the Paper "Religious groups are also important social organizations that aid in the development of socialization process. Social organizations that have a specific religion at the core can include; a church, mosque or temple, or a gospel choir. Membership to these religious groups allows individuals with the same belief systems to come together to worship and form friendships. The purpose of these groups is to strengthen the faith of members. This strengthening may be accomplished through mentorship, guidance and increased knowledge of the standards of the faith. Religious groups also provide individuals with a support system, which aids in the process of socialization."
Abstract This paper explains that stalking or "obsessional following" can be defined as obsessive relational intrusion (ORI), which is the willful, malicious and repeated following and harassing that threatens another person's safety. The author points out that cyber-stalking on the Internet not only serves as a new vehicle for criminal behavior but also presents the pursuer with the psychodynamic advantage of anonymity, which allows the stalker to assume any fantasized role he or she desires without any social constraint. The paper relates that this deception becomes a common phenomenon on the Internet because (1) most people believe that other people are telling the truth even though they are not, (2) deception is a common notion in ordinary social communication and (3) truthfulness is difficult to determine as Internet communication is limited to the written word without non-verbal cues.
From the Paper "Although little research has been done on the effects of stalking on the victim itself, Spitzberg, Nicastro, and Cousins (1998) point out that the stalking experience can create a form of "'psychological terrorism'" in which the victims are forced to change their lifestyle such as changing their address, or giving up their routine social activities. Together with this, basing on the research of Hall (1996), the victims are seen to undergo a change in personality such as experiencing paranoid cautiousness and being easily frightened."
Abstract The paper explains that sensory information is organized and interpreted by perceptual processes. The paper discusses how a study of visual perceptual processes is crucial in the comprehension of how people understand and interact with their environments. The paper then looks at perceptual principles of relative size and relative height and examines how the film "Yellow Submarine" demonstrates correct and incorrect usage of these cues through its variety of visual displays.
From the Paper "Sensation refers to the process by which the nervous system receives and represents incoming stimulus energy while perception is the organization and interpretation of this energy into meaningful units. Perception takes the sensory information to a new level, incorporating top-down knowledge with the incoming information from the receptors to give environmental information and assist actions within the environment. Visual perception can be described perfectly by the statement "There is more to life than what meets the eye." When light, the stimulus for vision, enters the eye, the retina contains photoreceptors that receive this information and transmit it down a chain that eventually leads to the primary visual cortex. Along the way, this information is interpreted and changed in such a way that what hits the photoreceptors is not necessarily what is seen. "
Abstract This paper is based on the premise that personality development is affected by the environmental cues an individual experiences throughout his or her life, within the confines of the genetic predisposition. It analyzes this perspective by focusing on two critical points. It discusses that there is an emerging consensus as to what constitutes the fundamental dimensions of personality traits and it suggests that these traits have a strong biological and evolutionary basis.
From the Paper "Though it can be difficult to accept from a philosophical perspective, the evidence gleaned from several large twin studies clearly concludes that genetics plays a significant role in determining personality, accounting for roughly two-thirds of all observed personality differences. With such a significant influence, it becomes evidence that the role of the environment is greatly diminished and likely only affects how biological personality traits will express themselves, not which traits will develop. From a practical perspective, this means that clinicians must shift from an environmental control model of treatment to one that more fully addresses the basic biological underpinnings of personality development and personality disorders."
Abstract The paper examines the features of universal human body language that can be completely unconscious to both the communicator and the recipient. The paper explains the phenomenon of mirroring and describes the nonverbal cues used by dating couples. The paper then shows why learning to interpret nonverbal communication is essential in the professions of sales, policing and nursing.
Outline:
Introduction
Universal Human Body Language
Mirroring Behavior and the Importance of Postures and Body Position
From the Paper "Like other animals, human beings have evolved patterns of body language to help them communicate with others. Because we rely so heavily on verbal communication, we tend not to notice it as consciously as spoken language except in more extreme circumstances such as fear or outright aggression. Nevertheless, human body language and other forms of nonverbal communication patterns provide considerable amounts of information about others (Gerrig & Zimbardo 2005)."
Abstract This paper discusses some of the different theories concerning the strategies used in the reading process: the cueing system, the theory that looks at the interrelationship between automaticity and fluency, the schema theory, and the transactional theory. The paper relates that the process of literacy starts far before children attend kindergarten and continues through adulthood. The paper further relates that literacy is considered more than just a cognitive skill; it is a complex and active process that includes the cognitive, social, linguistic and psychological aspects of learning. In addition, the paper points out that one important aspect that needs to be included in all teaching methods is a love of learning.
From the Paper "As with any other human behavior, there are several different theories concerning the strategies that are used in this reading process. One theory is known as a cueing system, where "reading" is more than just saying the words aloud. Rather, the "reader" must properly combine four different cues or clues to decode words in a running text. The first is the spelling pattern or letter-sound information (graphonicic); the second is how the words are arranged (syntactic); the third is what words make sense (semantic); and the fourth is experiential (background). This model is supported by those who rely on evidence from the types of mistakes people make while read or "miscue analysis." This approach suggests that when children see a difficult-to-read word, they should make an educated guess by trying these different cues. The child would be asked to cover up different clues for practicing the other ones."
Abstract This paper examines how psychological research has done a great deal of work in the area of understanding. It discusses how several studies of deception and its detection have examined a number of important issues such as accuracy of deception judgements, cues that give deceivers away, cues that people think give deceivers away and whether some people are better at identifying deception. It proposes a study to examine the significance of judgemental accuracy and its correlation with behavioural aspects of indicating deception.
From the Paper "Three tests and one task were administered among 376 of Macquarie University Introductory Psychology students to determine whether, on average, individuals are poor at detecting deceit. Research also intended to indicate whether there is an association between behavioural analysis ability and accuracy of deception judgements. Each participant completed computerized emotion-comparison task, "Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test", self-report chosen to reflect ability in
social and emotional information processing and, finally, a card-playing task to assess student's ability to deceive and to detect deceit. Results indicated that students? average accuracy at detecting deception is just slightly above the chance and established that indeed there is a correlation between behavioural aspects of indicating deception and the accuracy of judgements."
Abstract This paper examines how, traditionally, people have looked for cues about how they should behave in their social environment from peers, family, school and church, and how, increasingly, these social cues regarding acceptable behavior have come from the media. It looks at how incidents such as the Columbine High School shootings were inspired by movies and the television. It discusses how television has a tremendous opportunity to instill good values and principles in today's youth, but because of the amount of violence shown, it instead inspires violent behavior in children and adolescents in a variety of ways, as well as a certain long-term desensitization towards violence.
From the Paper "By inflating the prevalence of violence, television contributes to increased perceptions of the world as a dangerous place (Center for Communication and Social Policy 28). This increases the motivation of a child or teen to carry a weapon. Among urban youths, studies have shown that interpersonal violence is the greatest cause of death and injury. Gun violence has replaced accidents as the leading killer of children and adolescents each year. Although violence on television is not the only factor in these deaths, pediatricians have recognized exposure to media violence as a significant risk for their constituents (Hogan et al)."
Tags: desensitization, gun, violence, columbine, movies
Abstract Migratory birds face navigation and orientation challenges. This paper explains how, in order to face those challenges, they are equipped with an inherited route direction and distance information and with an ability to calibrate it with environmental cues, such as geomagnetism, celestial rotation, the sun and polarized light, wind, odors, landmarks, and visual and vocal contact with their co-species. It examines how the variability in the characteristics of these cues over time and in respect to the geographic position of the bird during the migration can result in disorientation, navigational errors, and a consequence disposition. It examines the stopover sites in the Mediterranean basin, which, besides being important refueling stations for migratory birds, have also the capacity for serving as a multi-cued reorientation sites that facilitate landmark, visual, vocal, and even olfactory navigation. These sites in general, and Eilat in particular, can study the target sites of numerous species by combining direction studies with distance studies migratory species and thus set the stage for future navigation-related studies.
From the Paper "Migratory birds seek to exploit temporal food resources in different parts of the globe in winter, and to come back to the breeding grounds in spring (Terril, 1991). In order to successfully reach that goal, birds must not only correlate their migration phenology with ecological dynamics at the destination, but must rely on an efficient, calibrated and accurate navigation system, coupled with a strong sense of orientation (Wallraff, 1991). Migration under poor navigational ability and/or orientation mistakes can result both in arriving to unsuitable habitats and in unsuitable arrival timing (Busse, 1992). Such errors force migratory birds to reorient and reroute their direction, a process that is not only time consuming, but also results in the elongation of the initial route by up to twice the original distance (Busse, 1992)."
Abstract This paper discusses the various methods of lie detection. The paper examines the psychophysiological methods, such as the polygraph, and non-physiological methods, such as emotional cues, cognitive cues, and facial expressions. The legal aspects of lie detection tests are explored in the paper, including the extent of their credibility.
From the Paper "Lying and deception can have serious consequences in law enforcement and courtroom proceedings. Thus, forensic psychologists have devoted much effort to developing methods and techniques for detecting lies. Unfortunately, research indicates that the majority of people, including those working in law enforcement, do not reach above chance levels in detecting deception when using intuition alone. For example, Ekman & O?Sullivan (1991) showed in two studies of law enforcement officials that many fail to reach above chance levels. On the other hand, other studies show that some lie catchers, such as psychological experts or the secret service, can perform with above chance accuracy in detecting deception (Ekman, O'Sullivan & Frank, 1999). In light of the difficulty in accurately determining deception, psychological research has focused on examining which cues used to judge deception are most accurate and on the development of more objective psycho physiological measures of deception."
