Abstract Kids decoder rings in cereal boxes, the puzzles in the comic pages of the daily newspapers and high-tech encryption all have something in common, they are all variations of cryptography. The paper shows how, ever since the early days of civilization, people have been trying to encode massages to keep secrets from falling into the hands of the wrong person. Today the science and math of cryptography go way beyond switching letters around according to a certain pattern, but if a person remembers that the basic idea is the same, cryptography can be a fascinating endeavor into math, science, and even into language itself. This paper reviews the history of cryptography and the many things encryption has been used for in the past. It then looks at how encryption is used in modern times and for what purposes. The paper explains cryptography from a mathematical point of view, following the development of encryption and cryptography mathematically. Finally, it looks at the future of this science.
From the Paper "One of the most important developments came in the form of the Wheel Cipher. The Wheel Cipher was created by Thomas Jefferson, possibly with the help of Dr. Robert Patterson, a mathematician at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1913, Captain Parket Hitt reinvented the Wheel Cipher in strip form. This lead to the creation M-138 -A, used in World War II. Just a few years later in 1916, Major Joseph O. Mauborgne ut Hitt's strip cipher back into the wheel form, strengthened the alphabet construction, and produced the device that would lead to the M-94 cipher device. These devices, along with encryption courtesy of the Navajo people, helped the allies defeat Germany, Japan, and Italy in World War II."
Abstract This paper focuses on the role of cryptography in wireless networks, smart cards, content delivery services, e-commerce and health care. It discusses the fact that cryptography is an enabling technology that is vital for the development of the information society, including applications such as smart cards (for identification and financial transactions) content delivery services (pay-per-view audio/video) and wireless networks.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Cryptography Wireless Networks
Smart Cards
Smart Cards for Identification
Content Delivery Services
Cryptography in Ecommerce and Healthcare
Conclusion
From the Paper "Overall, the discussion provided an informative understanding of cryptography and the manner in which it is utilized on a daily basis. It is apparent that each of these technologies is important to industry and individual users and the popularity of these products will probably continue well into the future. The discussion also solidified the fact that cryptography is an enabling technology that is vital for the development of the information society including applications such as smart cards (for identification and financial transactions) content delivery services (pay-per-view audio/video) and wireless networks."
Abstract This paper analyzes cryptography, the encryption or transformation of data into some unreadable form in order to ensure privacy by keeping the information hidden from anyone for whom it is not intended. It provides a brief overview of cryptography, discusses methods of encryption and description and examines cryptographic protection in Microsoft Windows 2000 as an example of cryptography utilization.
From the Paper "Cryptography is the study of mathematical techniques related to aspects of information security such as confidentiality, data integrity, entity authentication, and data origin authentication. It is defined as the science of protecting data. Cryptographic mechanisms help organizations provide a complete suite of security services. The fundamental goal of cryptography is to adequately address systems and information security in the prevention and detection of cheating and malicious activities."
Abstract This five-page paper is on "Using cryptography to secure data". It includes the description, the advantages, disadvantages and the examples of symmetric cryptography, asymmetric cryptography, block cipher and stream cipher.
Abstract This paper discusses the importance of cryptography, explaining that it can be divided into two branches, transposition and substitution. The writer explains how knowledge of cryptography has spread and its uses today.
From the Paper "In transposition, letters in the message is rearranged, generating it into an anagram. Transposition has a weakness in that small words have a small number of ways it can be rearranged, which makes deciphering messages with very few letters easy; deciphering messages with a large number of letters would be nearly impossible since there may be millions of combinations that the message can form. The alternative to transposition is substitution. One of the earliest uses of a substitution cipher is the Caesar Shift Cipher, where messages were encoded by replacing each letter in the alphabet with the letter three places along. A cipher or encryption method is a procedure method for altering a plaintext message into cipher text by changing the letters of the plaintext using a transformation."
Abstract This paper examines how quantum cryptography is a fast growing form of encryption that is not based upon the difficulty of mathematical algorithms and instead employs quantum physics to encrypt information on the physical level. It emphasizes the need for an innovative cipher as well as the need to inform the IT community regarding the commercial application of quantum cryptography. It also provides a broad overview of the quantum cryptographic protocol and operation using fiber optic media.
From the Paper "The integrity of information between sender and receiver relies upon secure channels and more importantly the ability to protect the information from unauthorized recipients. The transmission of information can be compromised when a third party listens in on the transmission media measuring the physical object. Consequently, the eavesdropper can effectively intercept the contents of a communication. Certain types of classical cryptography have proven vulnerable to the interception of data and the incident can remain undetected during the entire transmission. This idea of a man-in-the-middle attack on communication media using quantum cryptography is not possible due to the laws of quantum mechanics. Quantum superposition's and quantum entanglement are two properties of quantum physics used to detect eavesdropping. "
Abstract The rapid advancement of technology, particularly in the telecommunication and computer sector, has brought a paradigm shift to our communication methodology. The Internet has revolutionized the world of communication, and today we are living in a global village without any geographical limitations. This paper shows that the change in business methodology indicated by the unprecedented growth of e-commerce is not without its problems. The loopholes in the new technology provide a fertile ground for miscreant elements. Hackers are on the increase, and the Net seems not all that safe and confidential. This paper discusses cryptography, which is the science of data encryption, a technology that provides for a safe, secure, and private information exchange. Cryptography has evolved from its primitive form, and today it is studied as a separate subject. Encryption has become an integral part of our security provisions, and it provides for safe transmissions through a path infested with hackers and snoopers and other kinds of offenders who use their technical expertise to intrude into and threaten the privacy and confidentiality of our vital data. The paper discusses the application of cryptography, with a brief overview of the basic mathematics and the different algorithms.
Paper Outline
Thesis
Introduction
Basic Encryption Methods
Transposition
Key Based Encryption
Symmetric Key Encryption
Public Key Encryption
Socket Security Layer
Encryption Standard
Crypto Algorithms
Stream Ciphers
Frequency Analysis
Block Ciphers
Electronic Code Book Mode
Cipher Block Chaining
Cipher Feedback
Output Feedback (OFB Mode)
Key length and Security
Basic Mathematics of Cryptography Arriving at the Decryptor
Random Numbers and Key Security
The Need for Encryption
Attacks on Medical Records
Attacks on the Pentagon
Future of Encryption Technology
Quantum Cryptography Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "Block ciphers operate on a block of plain text and encrypt them with a key of a particular length to yield a block of cipher text. For this purpose the given string is divided into blocks and encryption algorithm is applied to the individual blocks. The DES is currently one of the best-known block ciphers and also the standard followed by the American government for the past twenty years. Obviously problems arise when we try to use the same crypto key for identical blocks of plain text. This reveals clear pattern in the transmitted cryptogram making it easy for the hacker to decrypt the message. The essential property of a successful algorithm is the need to produce cryptograms without any obvious patterns that can be related to the individual blocks of the plain text."
Abstract This paper examines how there are several legal issues come into play when attempting to protect consumers who use the Internet and how one such method of protection is through encryption and cryptography of information. It looks at how encryption and cryptography of information prevents unwanted persons from accessing information or if access is gained, from reading and understanding messages that are not intended for them. The paper also examines how, although legal actions may be taken to protect consumers, many actions are available that consumers can make on their own to protect themselves and their businesses.
From the Paper "In ancient times encryption was used by those individuals who had an exceptional need for confidentiality and were willing to put in the effort required to do so such as those involved in trading. The use of encryption during World War II is also documented. As use of the encryption system grew and improved over the years, the implementation of the U.S. Data Encryption Standard (DES) and public key cryptography in the 1970's brought about the emergence from the preserve of secretive government agencies into the public domain. "Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a widely-used method of data encryption using a private (secret) key that was judged so difficult to break by the U.S. government that it was restricted for exportation to other countries (Biasci, Granum & Randatz). Protecting military secrets has historically been done my encrypting messages so they can be read only by the intended recipient. "
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that cryptography was a very important element in the results of both World War I and II. The writer points out that while it has been used for centuries for a variety of purposes, cryptography in its currently known forms was first developed during the 17th century. In tracing the work of a variety of cryptographers, this paper shows each contribution during the world wars, and looks at how each success is used as a platform for future achievements in the field. The writer maintains that the pioneering work of the men and women mentioned here is instrumental in the current political climate, where intelligence gathering on terrorism is vitally important.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Fermat and Euler
Herbert O. Yardley, Pioneer during World War I
Agnes Meyer Driscoll
Decoding the Enigma
From the Paper "Yardley's work here involved receiving encoded messages involving American government officials traveling abroad. He found his work in the Code Room thrilling, and resolved to be involved with cryptography throughout his life.
"With the outbreak of World War I in 1917, Yardley was 28 years old. He was put in charge of Military Intelligence, which required that he decode foreign messages. This was a significant point in American history, as the Intelligence Agency that Yardley set up was the first of its kind in the country. The Agency - MI-8 - proved invaluable to the country. For this, Yardley received the Distinguished Service Medal. Yardley's efforts were used as a springboard for further developments in cryptography during World War II."
From the Paper "The increasing number of personal e-mails and file transfers creates corresponding escalating concern for e-mail privacy and security issues. These problems plague individuals as well as companies of all sizes; a recent survey sponsored by the International Computer Security Association indicated that the number of companies spending more than $1 million USD annually on security rose 92 percent from 1999 to 2000. "
This paper discusses the issues around the development of E-money (also called electronic money, digital money or digital cash), the economic base and monetary policy.
Abstract This paper defines E-money as spendable balances represented by digits on a bank's balance sheet. The paper discusses that E-money can not become standard currency until the public understands the concept and feels comfortable in using the technology and until the emergence of cryptography, the ability to make the transactions secure and unbreakable. The author believes that financial markets will have to develop new internal regulations, banks will have to adjust their style of business and the federal government will have to rethink the status of its monetary policy to keep control of the monetary base.
Table of Content
Abstract
Why Did Money Develop?
New Advances in Payment Systems
Why the Advances to get rid of Fiat Currency?
What is E- Money?
E-money and Government Regulation
E-money and Government Taxation
Conclusion
From the Paper "In the last thirty to forty years, major advances in payment systems and abilities have revolutionized the way most Americans and Europeans pay for goods and services. In the early 1950's, a new type of card emerged that enabled people to pay for goods and services without actually transferring any type of fiat currency or commodity, the Diners Club payment card. It was the first card that enabled individuals to pay for their lunch or dinner just by signing a piece of paper."
Abstract This paper discusses the work of the physicist John Bell, who's great recognized achievement occurred during the 1960s when he brought new life into the foundations of quantum theory. It examines how Bell demonstrated that discussion of such concepts as 'realism', 'determinism' and 'locality' could be formed into a rigorous mathematical statement, 'Bell's Theorem?, which is capable of experimental test. It looks at how his work has become a point of interest for scientists throughout the world who have found applications not only in quantum theory, but in investigations of the physical universe as well and how current applications of Bell's Inequality have been found in the development of quantum computing and quantum cryptography.
From the Paper "Quantum mechanics, however, fails to satisfy Bell's Inequality. He predicts correlations that cross over boundaries that are delineated by the structure of that inequality. Quantum mechanics predicts "odd" correlations that seem to defy a common, classical conception of reality, and in fact it is for basically this type of reason that Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen argued in 1935 that it was incomplete. The formulation of Bell's Inequality, however, allowed the possibility for determining, through experiment, which was right: quantum mechanics or a local reality theory of the sort Einstein postulated, because it stated what must be the case in our experiments if a locally real theory is correct."
Abstract This paper explains that the ancient "art" of keeping a secret, cryptography, has joined the age of technology, computerization, and intergalactic communication. The author points out that the government agencies entrusted with maintaining security in the United States have not followed a strictly open path in limiting public access to cryptographic methods. The paper relates that, with the Financial Anti-Terrorism Act, passed in October of 2001, restrictions on surveillance have been reduced, while penalties for low-level computer intrusion are greatly increased.
From the Paper "In the late 1970s, American cryptographers were busy working within the quickly evolving world of the Internet. "This academic revolution--the development of a public science of cryptography and a resulting colloquy about it--was accompanied by a similar, equally dramatic revolution on the microcomputer front. The result: Ordinary people with desk top PCs could encrypt their messages or data to a degree that only governments could have achieved not long before" (Godwin 45). Maintaining secrets had come to be seen as "collecting intelligence", a service provided by a number of government agencies in the United States. Military "intelligence" has also always had the extra burden of maintaining secrets in order to save lives. Probably every nation on earth gathers information concerning the political and military status of other nations."
Abstract A study of Crytography, the science of mesage encryption. It discusses the history of cryptography and its development during World War II. It discusses the Enigma machine and carefully details its instructions for use. It also discusses cracking the Enigma and includes examples of this in history. This paper analyzes the Enigma and concludes that all codes will eventually be cracked by dedicated and bright Cryptanalysts no matter how complex the algorithm. Also, security is more than just having a brilliant machine. It was not the Enigma that failed in World War II, it was human error.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Background and Early Cipher Technology
The Enigma Machine
Receiving Instructions
Cracking the Enigma
Conclusion
From the Paper "Cryptography can thought of as the science of message encryption. The battle between Cryptographers (code makers) and Cryptanalysts (code breakers) has been waged since 3000 BC as each tries to outwit the other. Cryptography is essential in performing secure transactions, governing countries and commanding armies. The threat of messages being decrypted has been the motivation for cryptographers to develop new, more complex algorithms in hopes of temporarily staying one step ahead of the Cryptanalysts. Likewise, the motivation for breaking codes can be the difference between winning a war and losing it. As a result, the coder breakers and their computers rose to prominence during their battle in World War II versus the Enigma cipher machine."
From the Paper "As e-commerce becomes integrated into the daily activities of businesses and consumers, there is increased concern about security and the Internet. This research examines the importance of the issue and the role that cryptography can play in computer security.
Importance of Security to E-Commerce
In addition to millions of consumers around the world who buy and sell on the Internet, banking is also becoming an increasingly popular activity for consumers. In 1999, analysts estimated that more than two million consumers (or approximately two percent of all American households) used the Internet to pay bills. It was estimated that there are 5.8 Americans who use the Internet to conduct on-line transactions, and of these, 1.3 million use the Internet to..."
