Abstract
The paper explains that the Crusades were a procession of religious conflicts assembled by Christian Europe against Muslim and Pagan societies to gain control of the Holy Land. The paper explores what motivated people to become crusaders and discusses how many wanted to attain penance, escape the economic despair in Europe, obtain the status of a martyr or strive for women's liberation. The paper therefore shows how the Crusaders were all motivated by individual ideas.

From the Paper
"The Crusades were a procession of religious conflicts assembled by Christian Europe against Muslim and Pagan societies to gain control of the Holy Land. It was Pope Urban II that encouraged the mission of the first Crusade. In the ancient city of Auvergne he "launched his appeal not only to the pilgrims gathered there but to the whole Christian world, to go on a still greater pilgrimage, to drive the infidel from the Holy Land." Crusaders came from all over Europe to pursue this goal. There was an emphasis on taking up the cross and fighting for penance, but this later changed through the course of Crusading history. The internal conflicts among the Christians and political alliances with non-Christian powers led some of the Crusade expeditions to divert from their original aim of religious liberation."

Tags:Christianity, Europe, Jerusalem, Holy, Land, Pope

Abstract
The Crusades refers to a series of nine separate military campaigns, which took place during the Middle Ages, and were generally considered to be religious in nature. The paper shows that when the Crusades began, they were a Roman Catholic effort against the Muslims and were aimed at recapturing the Holy Land. However, later Crusades were directed against other Europeans. The paper argues that the only Crusade that accomplished its stated goal was the First Crusade. While later Crusades met with varying success, they also created a strong anti-West sentiment in much of the world.

From the Paper
"In fact, the First Crusade was characterized by a tremendous religious fervor. Not only were the Crusaders set to attack the Muslim occupants of Jerusalem, but they also violently attacked non-Christians on their way to the Holy Land. For example, Jews were massacred by mobs of Crusaders passing through Europe and Orthodox Christians were subjected to violence by Western Christians. However, these Crusaders were successful in reaching Jerusalem. Once there, they massacred the state's Muslim population. The First Crusade was the only successful Crusade, because the Crusaders achieved their objective, which was to recapture the Holy Land."

Tags:Urban, Hold, Land, Jerusalem, Bernard, Muslim

Abstract
The paper reviews the book, "The Crusades", where Hans Eberhard Mayer presents a comprehensive history of the Crusades. The paper shows how Mayer uses the context of the societies that produced the crusaders to explain how and why they happened. The paper also discusses how Mayer dispels the notion that the Crusades were a single movement carried out by a united European front on a monolithic Muslim people. In addition, the paper explains Mayer's idea that there were many Crusades that happened for many different reasons and produced many different and mostly disastrous results.

From the Paper
"In his book, The Crusades, Hans Eberhard Mayer presents a comprehensive history of the Crusades. Although this book was first published in Germany and translated into English in 1965, its subject has taken on new and deeper relevance now, forty years later. Mayer uses the context of the societies that produced the crusaders to explain how and why they happened. As Mayer describes it, the people of the emerging states of Europe had existed largely in isolation since the heyday of the Roman Empire. They had literally come to believe that they were the center of the universe. The fact that the pope and the capitals of the eastern and western empires (Rome and Constantinople) were all in the northern Mediterranean region was proof of this. According to Mayer, the crusades changed European consciousness towards the Muslim people and culture beyond their borders."

Tags:Muslims, Christians, Jerusalem, Europeans, Holy, Land

Abstract
The paper discusses the problems faced by the second crusaders on their march to the Levant during the Second Crusade, and makes an assessment of how far these problems adversely affected the Crusade as a whole. Key issues discussed include the relationship with the Greeks, Crusader lack of knowledge of local conditions, lack of supplies and poor leadership on the part of Louis VII.

From the Paper
"Odo of Deuil describes an incident where Turks attacked the French army at Adalia, and the non combatants attracted the attention of Louis, who boldly went to defend them. He says of the Turks, 'they thrust and slashed, and the defenceless crowd fled or fell like sheep.' A prominent eastern source, John Kinnamos, also describes the crusader army as being like sheep 'flocks of sheep might vainly be reckoned in entire myriads if they suffered a single lion leaping at them.' The fact that western and eastern sources are agreed on the nature of the army supports the fact that the large numbers of non combatants had an adverse affect on the crusading army and caused considerable problems. This problem was not overcome, as the both the French and German army never managed to be rid of the non combatants. "

Tags:byzantium, comnenus, conrad, deuil, louis, manuel, odo

Abstract
This paper relates that Amin Maalouf used Arab chroniclers, diarists and historians of which were several first-hand accounts to write the story of the Crusades from the perspective of the Arabs. The paper points out that, in his book "The Crusades through Arab Eyes", Maalouf writes about the brutal behavior of the crusaders towards both Jews and Muslims particularly in the sacred city of Jerusalem. The paper explains that the book indicates that several comparative accounts differ about Muslim and Christian rule, especially in the Muslim capture of the crusader states such as Edessa and Antioch.

Table of Contents:
Sources
Chapters I-III
Chapters VIII-IX
Chapter X-XI

From the Paper
"The Zengi sultanate was established by Imad ed-Din Zengi, the Seljuk governor of Mosul in 1127. He also ruled over Northern Syria and Iraq as well as Aleppo. In 1144, Imad ed-Din Zengi captured the county of Edessa, the first crusader state to be established by the armies of the First Crusade. His capture of Edessa had then made Imad ed-Din Zengi a hero in the Muslim world but this was short-lived as he was soon killed by a slave in 1146. The territories under Zengi's ruling were then divided between his two sons."

Tags:invasion first-hand, salah al-din, captives zengi

Abstract
This paper examines how "The Fourth Crusade" by Donald Queller and Thomas F. Madden is valuable in its reasoned, articulate description of a confusing and tumultuous time in human history. It looks at how the authors follow the entire period from Pope Innocent III's initial call for a holy war in 1198 to the sacking of Constantinople in 1204. Queller and Madden outline how crucial overestimating the number of crusaders was in the misdirection of the Fourth Crusade. It shows how the book is clearly written, organized, well-researched and, ultimately, valuable in providing an in-depth understanding of the complexities and realities of the often confusing events of the Fourth Crusade.

From the Paper
"Queller and Madden's book covers the periods before, during and after the Fourth Crusade, and is valuable as a thorough description of the events of the Fourth Crusade. The Fourth Crusade, which took place from 1202-1204, was originally intended to conquer Egypt, but ultimately resulted in the conquering of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire in 1204. The book's analysis of the crusades begins with an analysis of Pope Innocent III's 1198 elevation to the papacy. Queller and Madden note the pope, "acutely conscious of his responsibility as the head of Christendom, intended to reassume papal leadership of the holy war," (1) and proclaimed a new crusade in the same year."

Tags:constantinople, byzantine, empire, christianity

Abstract
This paper discusses the Crusades, one of the major activities of Christianity during the Middle Ages which began in 1095, triggered by the desire to reach and conquer the Islamic believers who were occupying the Holy Lands. It attempts to understand what the purpose of the crusaders was and whether they were successful at achieving that goal. Through a literature review, it shows how historically, there isn't even a complete agreement about what actually happened during the Crusades, or even exactly when they took place and what the overall impact of the Crusades was and whether or not they were successful.

From the Paper
"The Fourth Crusade, although technically under the Pope's control, was actually never responsive to his authority. Their decision to take over the already Christian Constantinople made it abundantly clear that the goal of strengthening and uniting Christianity was not paramount. Although the Fifth Crusade was assembled with the deliberate aim of restoring power and authority over the Crusades to the Pope, it too was basically a failure. It was the diplomatic strategy of Frederick II during the Sixth Crusade that finally resulted in even a small gain of territory for the Christians. However, as we have seen earlier, the Crusades themselves had actually been considered a basic failure by this time."

Tags:islam, christianity, pope, holy, land

Abstract
This paper views certain extracts from eye witness accounts of the complexities of the march to and fall of Antioch and Jerusalem and its retainment as the Holy city as the birthplace of Christ and all Christendom in the First Crusade. With an aim of demonstrating the organizational change of the view of the people of the era and correct representation of the facts, two verbose quotations of authoritative figures who were present or involved in the Crusaders are included to aid enlightenment as to the situation from the eyes of observers.

From the Paper
"Pope Urban II dealt with the concept of negating the commandment that "thy shalt not kill" in relation to what will come of those who fell on the battlefield fighting against the hoards of Moslems to retain Jerusalem. In a statement to the realm of Gaul he said: You have modestly expressed a desire to know whether those who have recently died in war, fighting in defence of the church of God and for the preservation of the Christian religion and of the state, or those who may in 'he future fall in the same cause, may obtain indulgence for their sins. We confidently reply that those who, out of love to the Christian religion, shall die in battle fighting bravely against pagans or unbelievers, shall receive eternal life. For the Lord has said through his prophet: "In whatever hour a sinner shall be converted, I will remember his sins no longer." By the intercession of St. Peter, who has the power of binding and loosing in heaven and on the earth, we absolve, as far as is permissible, all such and commend them by our prayers to the Lord."

Tags:antioch, armenian, belief, culture, heathen, humanist, infidel, islam, jerusalem, jew

Abstract
The paper describes the period of the Crusades and Crusader rule in the Holy Land. The main focus is on their impact on Islam and the Middle East. Examines the concept of 'holy war' and how the battle between religious control of the masses developed.

From the Paper
"Traditionally, authors have defined the Crusades as an expedition to the Holy Land. The clergy, on the other hand, have always referred to them as great pilgrimages. Both conveniently package these events into a number of numbered crusades, beginning in 1095 and ending in 1291. This approach, however, is quite simplified, given the fact that the Crusades were not discrete and unimportant pilgrimages, but a continuous stream of marching Western armies into the heart of the Muslim world, culminating in the creation and consequently the fall of the Latin Kingdoms in the Levant. The Crusades were a Holy War of Western Christianity against Islam, the first great clash of civilizations, in which the greater part of Western Europe united against the infidels East of the Bosporus."

Tags:crusaders, crusades, holy, islam, jerusalem, land

Abstract
This paper examines the first and third Crusades in terms of their success and failure and ultimately their impact on Christian-Muslim relations in the Middle East. The author describes the first Crusade and the eventual internal conflicts among the Christians that allowed Muslims to rise up against the Europeans. Leaders on both sides are described, especially Saladin. The paper gives historic details of various battles, with particular emphasis on the fight for control of Jerusalem. The paper includes a discussion of anti-Western attitudes by Muslims that may have developed as a result of the Crusades.

From the Paper
" Generally speaking, the First Crusade was ignited in 1095 by predominantly French Christians whose main intention was to seize the sacred city of Jerusalem from Muslim control. This First Crusade was considered as a magnificent success in 1099, due to the crusaders conquering Jerusalem and maintaining control of the Holy Land for seventy-eight years despite much Muslim restlessness and bitter resentment. Internal conflicts among these crusaders then began to increase as a result of more nations joining in their actions against the Muslims. Some of these conflicts include arguments on leadership, political differences and war strategies."

Tags:Crusades, Muslims, Jerusalem, Holy, Land, Saladin, Richard, the, Lionhearted