Abstract
This paper argues that we cannot overlook the potential problems of conducting cross-cultural research in terms of its generalizations about cultures. A discussion about biases in research, judgments made about individuals and cultural groups, and the oversimplification of universalizing across cultures uses specific studies as examples of the problems such research entails.

From the Paper
"Cross-cultural analysis is an important tool in many different kinds of academic disciplines and social programs. Areas of hard science, the humanities, and the social sciences all make use of cross-cultural comparisons in some way or another in order to discuss the ways that individuals and groups are similar and different from one another over historical time and geographical space. While widely-used, essential for some forms of studies, and sometimes extremely beneficial for people and programs in multiple cultures, the generalizations made by such studies..."

Tags:cross, cultural, research, implications

Abstract
The paper examines Philip Curtin's critically-acclaimed text, "Cross-Cultural Trade in World History" and evaluates a significant issue within the body of the text. The paper aims to demonstrate that trade among peoples never entails merely the exchange of goods; rather, it entails the creation of cultural linkages as well as the forging of new ideas due to the collision of different modes of thinking.

Tags:cross, cultural, trade

Abstract
This paper is a critical analysis of cross-cultural politeness using the Brown and Levinson's model as a basis for defining and understanding politeness and applying it to three Asian languages: Chinese; Cantonese and Japanese.

From the Paper
"What is politeness? If I propose that politeness be used as pragmatically terminology, the preferable definition is to be found in appropriateness. It can be also said to be universal only in the sense that every society has some sort of norms for the appropriate behavior, although these norms are vary. The primary purpose of this paper is to provide a cross-cultural context by applying a well-known Brown and Levinson s model (1978 and revised in 1987), which has been applied in various settings, from casual services, encounters to EFL classrooms. However, Brown and Levinson s model (1978) has been criticized for being too geared to Western (especially American) notions of independence and, hence, for its limited applicability in Asian contexts. I have attempted in the following by first giving a general and brief account for Brown and Levinson s model (1978), and then try to apply and analyze the Brown and Levinson s model (1978) in three Asian languages: Chinese; Cantonese and Japanese. "

Tags:acts, brown, cantonese, chinese, comparison, culture, differences, face, japanese, levinson, politeness, threatening, cross-cultural

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses cross-cultural communication and challenges that arise when people come together in a negotiation. The writer maintains that it is important to recognize the different agendas that individuals have in a negotiation and the prejudices that they bring with them to the table. The writer uses notes from video cases to analyze three different situations.

From the Paper
"This exercise demonstrated the challenges that arise when people come together in a negotiation. It is important to recognize the different agendas that individuals have in a negotiation and the prejudices that they bring with them to the table. The best negotiators are also those who are adept at dealing with egos-both at putting their own ego aside and recognizing how to appeal to the ego of others involved in the negotiations. In this way negotiation involves both sales skills and psychology. Threats although sometimes effective ..."

Tags:cross-cultural communication, negotiation

Abstract
This paper examines Procter and Gamble's (P&G) cross-cultural adaptation strategies. The paper claims that cross-cultural adaptation is essential for any company that wants to survive the globalization process. The adaptation required is to both the internal and the external environment. The paper includes graphs to illustrate this. It concludes that P&G's power to create successful brands for diverse populations worldwide is one of the most valuable keys of success for the giant manufacturer.

Outline:
Company Overview
Cross-cultural Adaptations
Adaptation Weaknesses

From the Paper
"The company provides products for a wide range of customers: mid-income (Tide), higher income (Ariel), male (Gillette), female (Always), normal hair (Herbal essences), special care (Pantene), special need (Head and Shoulders), etc. The product portfolio diversification is one of the company's growth strategies. This is done by acquiring new products, such as Gillette or by engaging in strategic partnership, such as the one with Wrigley Co. One other growth strategy is innovation for existing products: new flavors, new recipes, new effects, new packaging, and so one. Finally, one other strategy is to keep fresh the customer's awareness through permanent promotional activity."

Tags:culture, management, inter-cultural, business, globalization, market

Abstract
In an increasingly globalized marketplace, it has become more important than ever to recognize the fundamental differences required to effectively manage people from different cultures. Because organizations are comprised of people, the accomplishment of any organizational goal will require the cooperation and commitment of people who may be from drastically different walks of life who hold divergent worldviews. This study seeks to better understand these issues through a critical review of the relevant literature and a cultural survey of Asian expatriate employees assigned to major Norwegian industry. The results of the review and survey clearly indicates the need for management styles that recognized these cultural differences. The research also suggests that many managers of multicultural organizations today may be overlooking an opportunity for improvement by ignoring these cultural realities, and in some cases these omissions may spell the difference between success and failure of the organization. A summary of the research, relevant conclusions and timely recommendations concerning cross-cultural management issues are provided in the concluding chapter.

Table of Contents
Abstract
Chapter 1: Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of Study
Importance of Study
Overview of Study
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature
Background and Overview
The Company and Setting
The Resource Based View
Cross-Cultural Management
Motivation Management
Commitment and Psychological Contract-Norwegians and Asians
Chapter 3: Methodology
Description of the Study Approach
Data-gathering Method and Database of Study
Chapter 4: Data
Chapter 5: Analysis of Data/Results
Chapter 6: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

From the Paper
"The topic to be explored in this study concerned motivation management in a cross-cultural setting. To accomplish this investigation, a critical review of the peer-reviewed, scholarly and organizational literature will be followed by an analysis of how well a Norwegian organization manages expatriate employees from Asian countries in its domestic headquarters. It is reasonable to assume that people with the same cultural background will be able to better understand and appreciate the subtleties involved in human communication and those from diverse and different backgrounds will experience some problems. Furthermore, people with different worldviews may have trouble comprehending cultural concepts of others."

Tags:organizational, goals, cultural, multicultural, yara, motivation, global, business, environment, job, satisfaction, wage, incentives

Abstract
This paper explains what culture is and how one culture differs from another. The paper explains the theories of the two main authors on the subject: Edward T. Hall and Geert Hofstede. It then focuses on cross cultural issues that occur in international companies. Two figures are included with the paper.

Outline:
Theories on culture differences
What is culture: how does it affect our lives and how is it formed?
What differentiates cultures from each other?
Hall's high and low context cultural framework
Hofstede's "Five Dimensions of Culture"
Managing cross cultural issues in a multinational firm
Managing cultural differences inside an organization
Managing cross cultural issues when entering a foreign market

From the Paper
"When confronted with a same situation, different people react differently. Their values (what they consider important) and beliefs (their sense of what will happen next) play an important role in the way they perceive an issue. This filter of values and beliefs leads individuals to a specific behavior. Where do values and beliefs come from? That's what we will encompass in this first part.
"Whereas animals react by instinct and their communication is mostly innate, we behave by culture, which is a major human characteristic. Culture molds our entire communication spectrum: words, gestures, tones of voice, facial expressions, the way one plays, works and makes love."

Tags:culture, management, abroad

Abstract
The writer of this paper critically analyzes the ways in which De Munch and Korotayev start out by explaining that it is difficult to research across cultures because of "cross-cultural pollenization" that is, one culture tends to absorb some traits of the other. They point out that without adequate controls, the research can give both false confirmations of the hypothesis as well as false negatives. This paper is a negative critique of Cultural Units in Cross-Cultural Research.

From the Paper
The first group might look culturally diverse at first: 4 Spanish; 4 Iraqi; 1 Russian; 1 Estonian; 1 Javanese; 1 Ganda; one Greek; one Maronite-Lebanese. However, this group had significant cultural similarities, which the authors of course knew because they contrived the group. Some of the clerics were Catholic and therefore celibate. Others were Moslem and allowed more than one wife. It is hard to imagine how this example sheds any light on either cross-cultural studies or statistical and research methods.

Tags:fictional, research, problem, characteristic, hypothetical, situations, controlled, basic, cultures

Abstract
The following paper will argue that any description of cross-cultural similarities and differences is best founded on a consideration mainly of culture-specific dimensions rather than culture-general dimensions; beyond that (and just as importantly), if one wishes to be competent in cross-cultural communication and learning, a firm grasp of culture-specific dimensions is critical. With that in mind, the following paper will look at how emphasis upon culture-general dimensions can lead someone to overlooking the subtleties that distinguish various cultures. The paper will also, in the interests of fairness, highlight how knowledge of culture-general dimensions can allow someone to feel "more at home" in an alien culture - and it can humanize others in the minds of a person traveling to a new location for the first time. Lastly, the essay ends by returning to its support of culture-general communication by citing the time saved, by making it easier to distinguish the "real" commonalities between cultures, and because it makes possible more experiential opportunities.

From the Paper
Intercultural Study: Why Descriptions of Cross Cultural similarities and differences are best founded on consideration mainly of culture-specific dimensions rather than culture-general dimensions The following paper will argue that any description of cross-cultural similarities and differences is best founded on a consideration mainly of culture-specific dimensions rather than culture-general dimensions; beyond that (and just as importantly), if one wishes to be competent in cross-cultural communication and learning, a firm grasp of culture-specific dimensions is critical. With that in mind, the following paper will look at how emphasis upon culture-general dimensions can lead

Tags:specific, dimensions, culture

Abstract
This paper discusses theories of cross cultural communication and applies them to Arab business communication. It uses a study of Kuwaiti businessmen's attitudes toward Western communication styles and activities. The paper reviews relevant literature on the subject.

From the Paper
This report first examined the professional and scholarly literature on cross-cultural communication and its underpinning theory. The report contains ..."

Tags:crosscultural communication, Arab culture, Arab communication, Western communiction, Western Culture