Abstract
The paper looks at different definitions of the term "deviance" by quoting different sociologists and discussing their views as to what is considered deviant behavior. The paper then discusses labeling theory which looks at the reaction of others to "deviant" behavior and the subsequent effects of such reactions. The paper also explores the different views of criminologists, psychologists, and sociologists as to the causes of deviant behavior.

From the Paper
"One sociologist, Erdwin Pfuhl, believes that the label "deviant" depends on a group's notion of actions and conditions that should and should not occur. This view also suggests that labels of deviance can change within different societies and times. One might ask why there are so many interpretations of deviance. The answer is rather simple. Due to its relative nature, people will interpret activities quite differently (Clinard, 1998)."

Tags:crime, behavior, society, rules, norms

Abstract
The paper offers an overview of corporate crime and the unclear reasons behind these types of crimes. The paper first discusses the difficulties in prosecuting wealthy business people who wield enormous power over politicians. The paper then shows the need for both criminologists and sociologists to understand the motivations behind corporate crime and bring the perpetrators to justice.

From the Paper
"While there are people who feel that corporations are engaged in organized crime, this is really not the case, and organized crime and corporate crime are different entities. What they are and how they are treated, however, do have some similarities that are significant (Finney, 1982: 266). The purpose of this paper will be to talk about those similarities and differences to give a good understanding of corporate crime and to show how criminologists and sociologists explain and prevent them. This is important, because the prevention of these kinds of crimes as well as others has significance in today's fast-paced life where wrongdoings are sometimes easily covered up and too many people tend to look the other way when they are aware of something going on that should not be."

Tags:power, wealth, politicians, fraud, money, laundering

Abstract
This paper discusses and analyzes the actions of Kip Kinkle, the fifteen year old Springfield, Illinois high school student who killed his mother and father with a shotgun and then went to school and opened fire upon his classmates, killing two students in cold blood, and injuring twenty five innocent bystanders. The paper discusses the events as viewed through criminologist Travis Hirschi's social bond theory.

From the Paper
"According to Travis Hirschi, every social network holds the individual within its fabric with four types of social bonds. These promote positive and negative opportunities for socialization and positive and negative ways to feel that one is connected to, or conforms to a norm. Hirschi did not see conformity as essentially bad, because he believed that a certain sense of conformity was necessary for appropriate socialization of adolescents. Conformity was necessary to feel that one had a future within one's society, and a social investment in playing by the rules of society and respecting the rights of others."

Tags:conformity, responsibilities, adolescent, punishment

Abstract
Using the original theory by criminologist Edwin H. Sutherland, developed in 1946, and further examination of his theories in Differential Transformation, we examine the idea that while some environment can cause criminal behavior, and some association with criminals can influendce a non-criminal, there are new crimes which have been "invented' which do not fit these theories.

From the Paper
DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMATION "Like father, like son" is not necessarily what Edwin H. Sutherland meant when he said "Criminal behavior is learned. Negatively, this means criminal behavior is not inherited" (Sutherland 1947 272). His principle that defines Differential Transformation is simply this: when conditions are ripe for criminal activities, they will occur. If they are not, chances are no criminal activity will happen. In other words, criminals tend to play the odds: when the odds are favorable, criminal activity is a Go. If they are not favorable, the criminal activity will be placed on Hold.

Tags:environment, crime is learned, white collar crime

Abstract
This paper shows that a look at Aldous Huxley's novel "Brave New World" through the eyes of a criminologist reveals the relevance of such theories as Hersch's Social Bonding Theory, Sutherland's Differential Association Theory, and Merton's Theory of Anomie.

From the Paper
"The futuristic society envisaged by Aldous Huxley in Brave New World is a utilitarian sanctuary in which all social efforts have been coordinated to produce stability and harmony. In this world personal liberties are quashed in the name of empty pleasures and mindless sensory delights that in spite of their dehumanizing effects do nonetheless produce and perpetuate a gloss of happiness that sustains the citizenry. Genetically engineered and hypnopaedically conditioned to accept-even enjoy-one's station in life the typical citizen in Huxley's future is free in a critical sense ..."

Tags:aldous huxley, criminology, criminal behavior, social bonding theory, differential association theory, theories of anomie, brave new world

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses that crime and the physical environment, as criminologists and researchers state, are two closely related concepts. The writer then notes that the exact nature of the relationship between crime and the environment has, however, come under much debate. The writer discusses that, though studies reveal a multitude of conflicting findings, it appears that the correlation between crime and the environment is determined by interactive and complex factors, involving much variation at the level of spatial and temporal determination. The writer maintains that crime and environment are interwoven in a complex tapestry of factors interpreted by the criminal, such as nodes, paths, edges, and the environmental backcloth of the situation - of which the criminal himself is an integral part.

Outline:
Introduction
Crime & The Environment
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The researchers believe that crime should be investigated as a broad range of behaviour which comes from individual incentives. The environment works primarily in that it makes the offender feel comfortable about committing the crime. An individual may feel that an environment is suitable for crime based on physical factors such as the type of neighbourhood, the crime site's exact location, the crime's surrounding street layout and other factors that are social, psychological and physical. These latter factors include the location's sense of territoriality, the socioeconomic status of the criminal and crime area inhabitants, the readiness of the criminal, triggers, the criminal's routine behaviour and familiarity with a crime area, awareness and activity space, opportunity, layout of the city and streets, potential suitable targets, surveillability of the crime area, the building construction within crime areas and edges and nodes defining the crime area."
"People have been long aware of the effect the environment has upon criminal behaviour. In fact, historically crime was viewed as very environment-based and solutions to crime were based on environmental changes."

Tags:environment, behaviour, criminologists, offender, individual

Abstract
This paper explains that some psychologists, psychiatrists and criminologists believe there are specific traits, characteristics and psychological factors, possessed by an individuals, which separate them from the rest of society and link them to other violent offenders. The author points out that criminal profiling was established on the theory that an individual commits every action with some form of motivation; therefore, the perpetrator must leave some form of psychological evidence at the scene of the crime. The paper explains that criminal profiling, especially for the more violent crimes such as homicide and rape, helps narrow the list of suspects by formulating the type of person for whom investigators should be looking. The author stresses that, although criminal profiling has had a long and influential history in the law enforcement field, some psychologists and criminologists are somewhat skeptic about its validity.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Background
Problem Statement
Purpose of Study
Hypothesis
Operationalization
Significance of Study

From the Paper
"Profilers must be extremely knowledgeable in the area of criminals, crime scenes, and psychology. They are trained and experienced investigators who act as tools in the apprehension of criminals. Profilers will tie all evidence gathered into a narrowed profile of an offender. This narrowing serves to make the most of personnel and resources to accurately identify and apprehend offenders. To do this they will look at the positions of bodies, weapons used, amount of violence, verbal statements through a signature, information about the victim."

Tags:link motivation, psychological evidence, investigators skeptic

Abstract
This paper examines how, in the last quarter century, the U.S. has experienced a drop in both crime rates and arrest rates and how many criminologists have speculated on the reasons for this drop in crime. It shows how Nobel Prize winner, Gary Becker, in his work, ?Crime and Punishment, An Economic Approach,? was the first economist to explain the theory of deterrence as a function of econometrics and how, according to Becker, if the punishment costs the criminal more than the crime benefits the criminal, then the criminal will rationally be deterred from committing the crime. It looks at how, although the Uniform Crime Report and the National Crime Victims Survey support Becker?s economic model of crime, scientists have struggled to prove Becker?s model with sound, empirical research.

From the Paper
"The deterrence/incapacitation argument is important for legislation such as "three strikes you're out? in which after three convictions a prisoner receives automatic jail time. If deterrence is not a key factor, the threat of incapacitation does not work. By definition, incapacitation is a by-product of deterrence. Without incapacitation, deterrence would not be a workable theory. Levitt concludes in his paper, that incapacitation may imprison the majority of people who would commit crimes no matter what, however, incapacitation without deterrence may make others more likely to commit crimes, who otherwise may have been deterred (Levitt, 370) increasing rather than decreasing arrest rates."

Tags:incapacitation, incarceration, punishment, criminal, arrest

Abstract
The paper shows that there are a number of different views of the meaning of rape, its causes and other issues of importance. Different theorists and analysts have offered their view of the meaning of this act, the reason why this type of violence seems necessary to some people, the effect of rape on the victim, and the view taken of these matters by society. The paper explains that criminologists take different views of the causes of rape based on different theories of behavior. It examines two such theories - The 'Social Learning Theory' as set forth by a number of theorists, among them Ronald Akers and 'Radical Feminist Theory', which combines a feminist perspective on society with ideas about what causes human behavior. In terms of rape, this means male behavior. The paper shows that in some ways, both theories address rape from a perspective involving learned behavior and would try to solve the problem by substituting a different learning structure. It explains that where Akers and the Radical Feminists differ is in their definitions of rape and so in terms of the behavior they are explaining.

From the Paper
"Akers (1998) states that his General Theory "is applicable to all types of criminal and deviant behavior, from minor violations of social norms to the most serious and organized criminal activities" (Akers, 1998, xx). He offers a chapter on rape and sexual aggression in which he calls such crimes "sexual access," and describes the crime in terms of non-consensual sexual intercourse. This brings him into conflict with some feminists on the subject, such as Rozee (1994), who states that "limiting definitions of rape to only non-consensual sexual intercourse ignores some of the most violent and obviously non-sex-related cases of rape that occur, such as penetration with objects" (Rozee, 1994, 500). It would also exclude male victims, victims who are underage, wives, and the non-forcible rape of an incapacitated victim, which Rozee would not exclude."

Tags:'Social, Learning, Theory, Radical, Feminist, Theory

Abstract
This paper examines current facts and statistics, as well as the research or classical school criminologists over the last two centuries, which supports the fact that capital punishment is not a formidable means of punishment. Jeremy Bentham's Utilitarian Theory is made reference to in this paper.

From the Paper
"Capital punishment involves punishment by death, which involves execution. In the United States, this capital punishment can be executed when one commits first-degree murder, treason, or is a military deserter during wartime. During the eighteenth century Europe is when the first recorded opposition to capital punishment arose. Italian jurist Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794), had a profound effect on the study of capital punishment (Schmalleger, p.91). Beccaria influenced famous thinkers of his time and since, in his famous Essay on crime and Punishment, which is detailed in Jeremy Bentham's writings on Utilitarianism. There is an ongoing argument in the United States and abroad, as to whether capital punishment is a formidable means of punishment. Proponents believe that capital punishment deters criminal activity such as murder, while opponents of capital punishment believe that there is absolutely no effect on the murder rate. With overwhelming costs of keeping the condemned locked up during lengthy appeals processes and increasing moral questions of killing human beings, there is a huge controversy as to whether capital punishment is effective. Capital Punishment is not a formidable means of punishment, which is supported by Jermey Bentham's Utilitarian Theory, inspired by Cesare Beccaria's Essay on Crime and Punishment."

Tags:capital, classical, criminology, punishment, school, utilitarianism