Abstract The paper looks at different definitions of the term "deviance" by quoting different sociologists and discussing their views as to what is considered deviant behavior. The paper then discusses labeling theory which looks at the reaction of others to "deviant" behavior and the subsequent effects of such reactions. The paper also explores the different views of criminologists, psychologists, and sociologists as to the causes of deviant behavior.
From the Paper "One sociologist, Erdwin Pfuhl, believes that the label "deviant" depends on a group's notion of actions and conditions that should and should not occur. This view also suggests that labels of deviance can change within different societies and times. One might ask why there are so many interpretations of deviance. The answer is rather simple. Due to its relative nature, people will interpret activities quite differently (Clinard, 1998)."
Abstract This paper shows that a look at Aldous Huxley's novel "Brave New World" through the eyes of a criminologist reveals the relevance of such theories as Hersch's Social Bonding Theory, Sutherland's Differential Association Theory, and Merton's Theory of Anomie.
From the Paper "The futuristic society envisaged by Aldous Huxley in Brave New World is a utilitarian sanctuary in which all social efforts have been coordinated to produce stability and harmony. In this world personal liberties are quashed in the name of empty pleasures and mindless sensory delights that in spite of their dehumanizing effects do nonetheless produce and perpetuate a gloss of happiness that sustains the citizenry. Genetically engineered and hypnopaedically conditioned to accept-even enjoy-one's station in life the typical citizen in Huxley's future is free in a critical sense ..."
Tags: aldous huxley, criminology, criminal behavior, social bonding theory, differential association theory, theories of anomie, brave new world
Abstract This paper discusses and analyzes the actions of Kip Kinkle, the fifteen year old Springfield, Illinois high school student who killed his mother and father with a shotgun and then went to school and opened fire upon his classmates, killing two students in cold blood, and injuring twenty five innocent bystanders. The paper discusses the events as viewed through criminologist Travis Hirschi's social bond theory.
From the Paper "According to Travis Hirschi, every social network holds the individual within its fabric with four types of social bonds. These promote positive and negative opportunities for socialization and positive and negative ways to feel that one is connected to, or conforms to a norm. Hirschi did not see conformity as essentially bad, because he believed that a certain sense of conformity was necessary for appropriate socialization of adolescents. Conformity was necessary to feel that one had a future within one's society, and a social investment in playing by the rules of society and respecting the rights of others."
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses that crime and the physical environment, as criminologists and researchers state, are two closely related concepts. The writer then notes that the exact nature of the relationship between crime and the environment has, however, come under much debate. The writer discusses that, though studies reveal a multitude of conflicting findings, it appears that the correlation between crime and the environment is determined by interactive and complex factors, involving much variation at the level of spatial and temporal determination. The writer maintains that crime and environment are interwoven in a complex tapestry of factors interpreted by the criminal, such as nodes, paths, edges, and the environmental backcloth of the situation - of which the criminal himself is an integral part.
Outline:
Introduction
Crime & The Environment
Conclusion
From the Paper "The researchers believe that crime should be investigated as a broad range of behaviour which comes from individual incentives. The environment works primarily in that it makes the offender feel comfortable about committing the crime. An individual may feel that an environment is suitable for crime based on physical factors such as the type of neighbourhood, the crime site's exact location, the crime's surrounding street layout and other factors that are social, psychological and physical. These latter factors include the location's sense of territoriality, the socioeconomic status of the criminal and crime area inhabitants, the readiness of the criminal, triggers, the criminal's routine behaviour and familiarity with a crime area, awareness and activity space, opportunity, layout of the city and streets, potential suitable targets, surveillability of the crime area, the building construction within crime areas and edges and nodes defining the crime area."
"People have been long aware of the effect the environment has upon criminal behaviour. In fact, historically crime was viewed as very environment-based and solutions to crime were based on environmental changes."
Abstract The paper offers an overview of corporate crime and the unclear reasons behind these types of crimes. The paper first discusses the difficulties in prosecuting wealthy business people who wield enormous power over politicians. The paper then shows the need for both criminologists and sociologists to understand the motivations behind corporate crime and bring the perpetrators to justice.
From the Paper "While there are people who feel that corporations are engaged in organized crime, this is really not the case, and organized crime and corporate crime are different entities. What they are and how they are treated, however, do have some similarities that are significant (Finney, 1982: 266). The purpose of this paper will be to talk about those similarities and differences to give a good understanding of corporate crime and to show how criminologists and sociologists explain and prevent them. This is important, because the prevention of these kinds of crimes as well as others has significance in today's fast-paced life where wrongdoings are sometimes easily covered up and too many people tend to look the other way when they are aware of something going on that should not be."
This paper presents the background information for a research proposal to study the accuracy and effectiveness of criminal profiling in identifying serial killers and serial rapists.
Abstract This paper explains that some psychologists, psychiatrists and criminologists believe there are specific traits, characteristics and psychological factors, possessed by an individuals, which separate them from the rest of society and link them to other violent offenders. The author points out that criminal profiling was established on the theory that an individual commits every action with some form of motivation; therefore, the perpetrator must leave some form of psychological evidence at the scene of the crime. The paper explains that criminal profiling, especially for the more violent crimes such as homicide and rape, helps narrow the list of suspects by formulating the type of person for whom investigators should be looking. The author stresses that, although criminal profiling has had a long and influential history in the law enforcement field, some psychologists and criminologists are somewhat skeptic about its validity.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Background
Problem Statement
Purpose of Study
Hypothesis
Operationalization
Significance of Study
From the Paper "Profilers must be extremely knowledgeable in the area of criminals, crime scenes, and psychology. They are trained and experienced investigators who act as tools in the apprehension of criminals. Profilers will tie all evidence gathered into a narrowed profile of an offender. This narrowing serves to make the most of personnel and resources to accurately identify and apprehend offenders. To do this they will look at the positions of bodies, weapons used, amount of violence, verbal statements through a signature, information about the victim."
Tags: link motivation, psychological evidence, investigators skeptic
Abstract This paper examines current facts and statistics, as well as the research or classical school criminologists over the last two centuries, which supports the fact that capital punishment is not a formidable means of punishment. Jeremy Bentham's Utilitarian Theory is made reference to in this paper.
From the Paper "Capital punishment involves punishment by death, which involves execution. In the United States, this capital punishment can be executed when one commits first-degree murder, treason, or is a military deserter during wartime. During the eighteenth century Europe is when the first recorded opposition to capital punishment arose. Italian jurist Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794), had a profound effect on the study of capital punishment (Schmalleger, p.91). Beccaria influenced famous thinkers of his time and since, in his famous Essay on crime and Punishment, which is detailed in Jeremy Bentham's writings on Utilitarianism. There is an ongoing argument in the United States and abroad, as to whether capital punishment is a formidable means of punishment. Proponents believe that capital punishment deters criminal activity such as murder, while opponents of capital punishment believe that there is absolutely no effect on the murder rate. With overwhelming costs of keeping the condemned locked up during lengthly appeals processes and increasing moral questions of killing human beings, there is a huge controversy as to whether capital punishment is effective. Capital Punishment is not a formidable means of punsishment, which is supported by Jermey Bentham's Utilitarian Theory, inspired by Cesare Beccaria's Essay on Crime and Punishment."
Abstract The paper takes a realistic look at the history, nature and social issues associated with organized crime, with a strong focus on the book "Organized Crime", by author and criminologist Howard Abadinsky. The paper examines the media's role in stereotyping the Mafia image of organized crime.
From the Paper "The nation's views on organized crime appear to be divided into two camps: First are the media and some law enforcement officials who assert that organized crime is exclusively controlled by the Italian Mafia. The other side consists primarily of academics, scholars and law enforcement officials who argue that organized crime is comprised of various groups; not a single, predominantly Italian, crime organization."
Abstract The paper shows that there are a number of different views of the meaning of rape, its causes and other issues of importance. Different theorists and analysts have offered their view of the meaning of this act, the reason why this type of violence seems necessary to some people, the effect of rape on the victim, and the view taken of these matters by society. The paper explains that criminologists take different views of the causes of rape based on different theories of behavior. It examines two such theories - The 'Social Learning Theory' as set forth by a number of theorists, among them Ronald Akers and 'Radical Feminist Theory', which combines a feminist perspective on society with ideas about what causes human behavior. In terms of rape, this means male behavior. The paper shows that in some ways, both theories address rape from a perspective involving learned behavior and would try to solve the problem by substituting a different learning structure. It explains that where Akers and the Radical Feminists differ is in their definitions of rape and so in terms of the behavior they are explaining.
From the Paper "Akers (1998) states that his General Theory "is applicable to all types of criminal and deviant behavior, from minor violations of social norms to the most serious and organized criminal activities" (Akers, 1998, xx). He offers a chapter on rape and sexual aggression in which he calls such crimes "sexual access," and describes the crime in terms of non-consensual sexual intercourse. This brings him into conflict with some feminists on the subject, such as Rozee (1994), who states that "limiting definitions of rape to only non-consensual sexual intercourse ignores some of the most violent and obviously non-sex-related cases of rape that occur, such as penetration with objects" (Rozee, 1994, 500). It would also exclude male victims, victims who are underage, wives, and the non-forcible rape of an incapacitated victim, which Rozee would not exclude."
Tags: 'Social, Learning, Theory, Radical, Feminist, Theory
This paper examines a category of ballistic science known as terminal ballistics, the study of how a projectile penetrates solids and thus is the mechanism of incapacitation.
Abstract This paper explains that the penetration and "stopping power" of a bullet can be measured using the kinetic energy and Taylor Index equations. The paper reveals that wound ballistics is concerned with the motions and interactions of the projectile with tissue. The author believes that, through understanding of the physics behind bullet impacts and penetration, the criminologist more fully understands how different types of projectiles react when striking flesh or other resistant mediums and can lead to better a understanding of the whys and hows of a crime. Formulas included.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Physics behind the Bullet
Wound Ballistics
Conclusion
From the Paper "To get the bullet in a vital area you need penetration. As a rule of thumb, velocity times sectional density is equal to relative bullet penetration. This is valid for bullets of similar composition. In good hunting bullets, expansion is consistently in the neighborhood of double the diameter and we assume the bullet will retain its weight. If the bullet goes to pieces, losing weight and consequently its sectional density, you might as well forget about it. The heavier bullet has a higher sectional density and will maintain the higher sectional density when it has expanded to double its diameter. In addition, the heavier bullets tend to have lower velocity. At lower velocity the resistance and consequently crushing force on the bullet nose, is lower, so expansion is delayed. This is why heavy bullets have delayed expansion, and do not show the same tendency to blow up on the surface as light bullets even though they have identical impact energy. It is how a given bullet interacts with tissue that determines its lethality."
Abstract This paper examines how, in the last quarter century, the U.S. has experienced a drop in both crime rates and arrest rates and how many criminologists have speculated on the reasons for this drop in crime. It shows how Nobel Prize winner, Gary Becker, in his work, ?Crime and Punishment, An Economic Approach,? was the first economist to explain the theory of deterrence as a function of econometrics and how, according to Becker, if the punishment costs the criminal more than the crime benefits the criminal, then the criminal will rationally be deterred from committing the crime. It looks at how, although the Uniform Crime Report and the National Crime Victims Survey support Becker's economic model of crime, scientists have struggled to prove Becker's model with sound, empirical research.
From the Paper "The deterrence/incapacitation argument is important for legislation such as "three strikes you"re out? in which after three convictions a prisoner receives automatic jail time. If deterrence is not a key factor, the threat of incapacitation does not work. By definition, incapacitation is a by-product of deterrence. Without incapacitation, deterrence would not be a workable theory. Levitt concludes in his paper, that incapacitation may imprison the majority of people who would commit crimes no matter what, however, incapacitation without deterrence may make others more likely to commit crimes, who otherwise may have been deterred (Levitt, 370) increasing rather than decreasing arrest rates."
Abstract Psychologists, criminologists, and people in law enforcement use varying perspectives to approach the problem of juvenile crime. This paper compares two of these approaches, namely, the Russell N. Cassel et. al.?s, quantitative study, entitled "Comparing the Cognitive Dissonance of 116 Juvenile Delinquent boys with that of 215 Typical High School Students", and Cheryl Thompson's theoretical inquiry, entitled ?The Disposables: Our Treatment of Violent Adolescents.? The paper shows that both papers present interesting psychological factors that contribute to criminal and delinquent behavior among the youth. Both studies reach similar conclusions: that the lack of proper psychological, emotional, and intellectual stimulus lays a foundation for criminal behavior in young men.
From the Paper "The Thompson study, on the other hand, assumes that attachment disorder is an early root of serious, and even violent criminal behavior. She alludes to the role of ethnicity, observing that young African American men who have access to an extended family fare better than their counterparts who grow up with a single mother. The importance of an extended family, for example, could be challenged by the many single parents who have successfully raised children on their own."
Abstract This paper examines how homicide is of interest not only because of its severity, but also because it is a fairly reliable barometer of all violent crime. It looks at how news media accounts of homicides can affect the public's perception of the importance of issues and how criminologists have long tried to understand the variables that lead to an individual committing an act of homicide. It discusses how homicide is primarily a problem plaguing minority communities and how research has shown that it is probably poverty, unemployment, and social stresses, not race that increases the risk of homicide. It recognizes that homicide in society is a reality and proposes the implementation of effective strategies or policies that should be analyzed and thought through in order to help in alleviating the act of homicide.
Outline
Introduction
Homicide Defined
Perception of Murder Rates
Homicide Rates According to Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)
Theories of Homicide
Implementing a Plan for Public Policy
References
From the Paper "News media accounts of homicides can affect the public's perception of the importance of issues. They can also influence the public's perception of risks, fears of personal safety, satisfaction with law enforcement, and trust of others. These concerns, in turn, can have far reaching consequences with regards to personal and political actions and considerations in how resources are utilized in the prevention and control of homicides (Sorenson, Manz, & Berk, 1998). Observing violence in the media can also have negative effects. Sidney Callahan, from the Commonweal Foundation, states that "Violent images on TV or in the movies have inspired people to set spouses on fire in their beds, lie down in the middle of highways, extort money by placing bombs in airplanes, rape people in particularly disgusting ways, and who knows how many other kinds of shootings and assaults" (Callahan, 1996)."
Abstract This paper compares some of the traditional, mythic views of Lombroso's work in great detail, as reflected in his own original work and the works of other great criminological minds. This paper focuses on the development of his theories, the popularity they enjoyed then and now, and how modern criminologists use his theories in studies of today.
From the Paper "Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909), the "father of modern criminology" (Mannheim, 1972: 232), gained much attention in the field of criminology during the end of the 19th Century. His ideas spread not only throughout Europe, but to the United States as well. His theory relied on the idea of atavism, the idea that criminals were a sort of evolutionary "throwback" to an earlier stage in human evolution (Schaefer, 1969: 126). This led to his classification of criminals to include categories such as born criminals, criminaloids, and insane criminals, as well as research on female offenders."
Tags: atavistic, cesare, crime, criminology, lombroso, positivist, theories, theory
Examines this mass murderer within the framework of several psychological theories and offers solutions to prevent these cases happening again in the future.
Abstract There has been little actual ground covered when it comes to identifying mass murderers or developing a psychological profile that can be construed as universal and practical. Public discourse on mass murderers tends to be split between the poles of the media and the psychological/psychiatric establishment, with the media favoring sensationalism and the psychological establishment favoring the application of abstract theoretical concepts of personality to cases. Neither of these polarized perspectives, though, has made much headway on the topic of identifying mass murderers and stopping them before they wreak havoc on society; much of the data is based on hindsight and focused on how the serial killer was normal in appearance or social status. This report looks at the mass murderer, Charles Manson, from the perspective of this problem. The report analyzes the Manson case from three different psychological perspectives, using the theoretical guidelines of Erickson's stage-based perspective, Pray's neo-Freudian perspective, and Wachtel's psychoanalytical perspective. The report also supplies an analysis of applying these theories and a comparative discussion, before concluding main points and offering suggestions for the future that are built around any garnered conclusions that may allow criminologists and law enforcement officials to have a better idea of prevention and preparation for cases of mass murder.
From the Paper "In Pray's reasoning, the concept of conscious motivation versus unconscious motivation is about what controls our actions and behaviors. The line between these motivational states is sometimes blurred, especially when one considers that recalling information may be a conscious act that is unconsciously motivated or even suppressed.
From this perspective, preconscious is seen to be that which is in the unconscious, but can easily be brought out from the unconscious to the conscious, or is capable of making the transition between the two."
