Abstract This paper closely examines the different methods of punishment that include retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation and societal protection. The paper describes how each punishment works, whether it deters crime or possibly results in further crimes, and which presents the best option for punishing criminals. The paper concludes that rehabilitation is the best deterrent to criminal acts, and although it is treating the symptom as opposed to the disease, better education and jobs cannot be anything but positive.
Outline:
Retribution
Deterrence Rehabilitation
Social Protection
From the Paper "Deterrence is based upon the idea that criminals are reasoning human beings, who commit criminal acts because it is a rational choice for them to do so: the demographics suggesting that criminal acts are prompted by social goals (such as Merton's 'Strain' theory: "Innovation involves accepting the cultural goal (financial success), but rejecting the conventional means (hard work at a 'straight' job), in favor of unconventional means (street crime)" (Macionis, 2006). By making the risk of punishment greater than the reward, deterrence implies that criminals will make a conscious choice between crime and remaining law abiding. This idea ignores issues about environment, poverty, and social pressure."
Abstract This paper is a complete description of the theory of deterrence and crime. Both aspects of the deterrence issue are examined in depth visa via current theories in criminology. This paper presents an extensive review by way of a research study. This paper then draws its conclusions with respect to the efficacy of the theory of deterrence as well.
From the Paper "In the May 1993 issue of the Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Stafford and Warr introduced the re-conceptualized deterrence theory by explaining that general and specific deterrence are both functions of crime. Both of these sociologists presented the argument that there is no reason to have multiple theories for general and specific deterrence. Instead they proposed the idea that a single theory is possible that centers on two levels; namely, indirect experiences involving legal punishment and punishment avoidance; and direct experiences with legal punishment and avoidance (Stafford & Warr, 1993). They furthered their argument by stating that general deterrence includes the knowledge of criminal activity performed by others as well as the consequences or absence of consequences from the specified criminal activity."
Abstract This paper discusses how the death penalty continues to be a highly controversial issue with most Americans and its deterrent effect has still not been absolutely determined. This paper concludes that it is clear that the death penalty does serve society quite well under certain circumstances, but in reality, society must begin to understand the reasons why people commit violent crimes and determine how to change a person's violent tendencies which in the end will make the death penalty unnecessary.
From the Paper "One of the most controversial issues in today's America has to do with the question as to whether or not the death penalty is a deterrent to crime. Many of those that support the death penalty argue that execution, whether by lethal injection, the electric chair or hanging, is the most suitable penalty for persons who have committed atrocious crimes like first-degree murder, rape or the murder of a child. The main contention for these supporters is that the convicted person deserves punishment that is comparable to the crime; in addition, supporters of the death penalty argue that such an action demonstrates society's adherence to moral principles. According to Robert Bidinotto, such crimes as premeditated murder "is a crime in a class by itself," for it "negates the highest moral end of a civil society," being human life (156)."
Abstract This paper discusses how the death penalty continues to be a highly controversial issue with most Americans and its deterrent effect has still not been absolutely determined. This paper concludes that it is clear that the death penalty does serve society quite well under certain circumstances, but in reality, society must begin to understand the reasons why people commit violent crimes and determine how to change a person's violent tendencies which in the end will make the death penalty unnecessary.
From the Paper "One of the most controversial issues in today's America has to do with the question as to whether or not the death penalty is a deterrent to crime. Many of those that support the death penalty argue that execution, whether by lethal injection, the electric chair or hanging, is the most suitable penalty for persons who have committed atrocious crimes like first-degree murder, rape or the murder of a child. The main contention for these supporters is that the convicted person deserves punishment that is comparable to the crime; in addition, supporters of the death penalty argue that such an action demonstrates society's adherence to moral principles. According to Robert Bidinotto, such crimes as premeditated murder "is a crime in a class by itself," for it "negates the highest moral end of a civil society," being human life (156)."
Abstract In this article, the writer maintains that although polls must be seen only as a reflection, it is clear that Americans see death as a justifiable punishment for the worst sorts of criminal homicides. As a result, the writer notes that the controversy of whether or not this is a deterrent against crime rages on and on. The writer points out that opponents continue to conduct studies to prove that one crime does not make up for another, while proponents continue to conduct studies to justify their belief system. Following a review of relevant literature the writer concludes that there is no consistency among the studies that are done to determine the impact of the death penalty.
From the Paper "Mendes and McDonald thus argued that the empirical ambiguity with respect to sentence severity arises because sometimes the empirical formulation of deterrence theory fails to keep the theoretical package intact. Especially, statistical models that isolate the components through the use of separate, additive elements do not account for the expected cost calculation as specified in the theory. Sentence length does not work apart from the probability of arrest and conviction. Instead, the three elements work together."
"Neither certainty nor severity of punishment can substitute for the other...any deterrent impact of certainty depends on the level of severity. Most likely, severity by itself cannot replace certainty, but the opposite is equally true. Models that do not reflect the combination of all deterrence elements fail to translate the theory and are likely to fall short of finding a significant effect for all of the components."
Abstract This paper contends that the development of a plan for crime prevention must carefully balance the civil liberties of the citizenry with requirements of a strong enforcement program - a difficult fence to straddle. The paper also looks at how the core of a crime prevention program must contain elements of diligence, deterrence and diversion. The paper then proposes a five point plan for reducing crime that includes a proactive and intensive community oriented policing policy, an aggressive enforcement of existing laws, and sure justice for offenders convicted of violent crimes with particularly long sentences for repeat offenders. The paper also proposes an availability of alternative programs for at risk members of society to prevent them from engaging in criminal activity as well as a system for developing performance goals and measures to determine the effectiveness of the first four points of the crime reduction program.
From the Paper "The first point of the proposed plan to reduce crime involves the proactive approach to the crime problem. Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) is the proactive approach. COPS is an integral program of community engagement, traditional law enforcement, prevention through problem solving and strategic partnerships with community leaders ("What is Community Policing?" n.p.). The intent of this program is to reduce community trepidation towards the law enforcement community and bring it into the neighborhood through a high profile presence. It has been shown that this increases trust in the community and demonstrated the ability to reduce crime by proactive means. "
Abstract This paper is a research proposal about the use of surveillance cameras and their efficiency as a crime investigation tool as opposed to a deterring crime. In his introduction, the author of the proposal examines current literature regarding the utilization of video surveillance as a tool for fighting crime. In addition, the writer discusses the use of video surveillance as a crimedeterrent, as well as an investigation tool. Finally, the author details his research proposal and procedure.
Outline:
Introduction
Hypothesis
Research Design
Setting
Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
Analysis of Data
Implications of Proposed Research
References
From the Paper "Much of the research surrounding video surveillance surrounds not public but private usage of video surveillance. The studies surround common crime centers such as convenience stores, which have been traditionally exposed to many crimes of property and often injuries and or loss of life. Convenience stores have taken many steps to reduce the incidence of robberies and one of them is implementing video surveillance, which often gets used by police to solve crime and at the very least create a set of information that time stamps occurrences and potentially offers identifying information of the suspects of the crime. The accepted existence of the cameras in such locations has not led to a decrease in robberies in most studies but is, when used correctly a substantial source of information for police when they are trying to apprehend criminals and explain forensic results."
Abstract The paper discusses deviant behavior that violates a society's formal norms or laws, constituting criminal behavior. The paper examines the deterrent effect of capital punishment and maintains that it is at best debatable. The paper highlights how capital punishment and increased law enforcement are reactive responses that only address the symptoms of crime. In contrast, a conflict-based approach seeks to address the social inequities that often contribute to criminal behavior in the first place. The paper contends that maintaining the decline in crime calls for these long-term and forward-thinking strategies. The paper stresses that authorities need to address the major causes, including the lack of role models, weakened social institutions and the systemic racism that make it difficult for many to be socially mobile.
From the Paper "Functionalist sociologists believe that the concept of deviance helps a society define the limits of acceptable behavior. If there were no formal laws, people could engage in behavior such as stealing in order to get what they want and need. These behaviors would undermine social ties and make it difficult for society to function. For functionalists, social programs punish those who have engaged in criminally deviant behavior would serve as a social deterrent. When criminals are punished, the other members of society are motivated to obey the laws."
Abstract This paper discusses the theories behind why some people commit violent crimes against others. It discusses classical theory which is based on the early work of Cecare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. It then goes on to describe rational choice theory, deterrence theory and the rationalist theory. The paper suggests that an understanding of all the theories are necessary in order to attempt to curb an increase in violent crime.
From the Paper "This is not to suggest that criminals should be coddled, a view parodied in the musical West Side Story when gang members sang out excuses for their bad behavior. If all criminal behavior were rationally driven, manipulation of the factors of certainty, severity and celerity would drastically reduce crime. However, ignoring the other things that influence and even detract from logical processes will lead to a greater understanding of why individuals commit crimes. In that way, the specific approach points to the general approach, because in research we find specific individuals, who, when grouped together in an effective research model, can suggest explanations for their behavior (Aurhahn & Parker, 1998). For example, research shows that alcohol abuse and violence correlate highly. But knowing such facts does not always point to simple solutions, possibly because behavior is too complex to be blamed on one behavior. This was demonstrated ironically and powerfully with this country's experiment with prohibition, which led to a dramatic increase in some crimes."
Abstract This paper looks at the death penalty. Both sides of the coin are discussed. The positive and negative effects lead the author to ask: Does the death penalty deter crime or does it have no effect other than on the executed criminal. With numerous examples.
From the Paper "Some time ago, a Texas journalist who had seen nearly two hundred people die in the electric chair over nearly thirty years declared that the death penalty is not a deterrent- the main claim for it. "The only person it deters," he believed, "is the man being executed." We should start by defining deterrence. It refers to an instance where an individual refrains from an act because he or she perceives a risk of punishment for the act and fears that punishment. Thus the deterrent effect of capital punishment is best evaluated in terms of the number of person prevented from committing a crime that would lead them to be penalized. So is there such a thing as the death penalty deterring society in general or was the Texas journalist right about the death penalty not having a deterrent effect on the general public?"
Abstract The author of this paper examines whether there is a basis of truth in the statement that capital punishment deters violent crime. The writer contends that this statement is used by many who believe in the death penalty but that there are many that insist that there is little to no effect. The author examines both sides of the argument in an attempt to draw conclusions from the information gathered and determine which side is correct.
Outline:
Introduction
Argument for the Death Penalty
Argument Against the Death Penalty
Conclusion
Works Cited
From the Paper "It is possible, however, that the death penalty would be a deterrent if it were used more swiftly and more often. Many people who are sentenced to death spend years in prison appealing their conviction and appealing their sentence, and this is a large waste of taxpayer money, as well as a huge burden on the court system. Those that are guilty beyond a shadow of a doubt often wait a long time for their sentence to be carried out. Even when DNA evidence shows that they were the guilty party, the execution is still not swiftly carried out, and this allows many criminals to find some way to avoid it.
Instead, they end up spending their life in prison, where they get hot meals every day, are allowed to exercise, and have a bed to sleep in every night. They watch TV and read books, and this is more than many of the hungry and homeless in today's society get. Criminals are treated better than many of these people. The criminals have lost their freedom, but they get a lot of things in return for that, and society is required to pay for them through taxes and other avenues that fund the prisons."
Abstract The paper looks at free will, biological, psychobiological, psychological, sociological, social psychological, social conflict and phenomenological theories of crime. The paper then shows how criminal law and procedure varies tremendously in different cultures, as well as within specific cultures when viewed over the long term. The paper relates that criminal law serves three different functions and then goes on to discuss the effectiveness of penal law in society. The paper then shows how criminal law essentially ignores the root causes of the conduct it is intended to redress. The paper points out, however, that the responsibility of addressing the myriad social factors and societal inequities that contribute to the actual causes underlying criminal conduct are addressable through other avenues, such as political efforts and social reform.
Outline:
Causes of Crime - Categories of Theories
Criminal Law in Theory and Practice
The Effectiveness of Penal Law in Society
From the Paper "Unwanted conduct of individuals and societal attempts to control behavior that is dangerous to others or to society as a whole obviously predates recorded history (Schmalleger, 2001). In the modern era (and the period most recently predating it), sociologists have suggested many general categories of explanations for the cause of unwanted behavior classified as crime, including: free will, biological, psychobiological, psychological, sociological, social psychological, social conflict, phenomenological, as well as other emergent theories conceived much more recently (Schmalleger, 2001; Henslin, 2002; Macionis, 2002)."
Abstract This paper analyzes if there is a trend between incarceration rate and crime rate and if the former is the cause of the latter.
From the Paper "Responding to much research done on the topic, politicians are calling for the construction or more prisons, longer prison terms and mandatory sentences. These all lead to and increase in the nation's incarceration rate. But is a higher incarceration rate really the reason behind the recent fall in crime rates across the country? To some, the answer is an obvious yes, while to others, that yes must be qualified by other factors."
Abstract This paper discusses the concept of community policing. The author says that for certain types of crime, such as hate crimes, mob-related crimes and ritualistic crimes, police must look at the underlying causes of the crimes rather than just dealing with the perpetrators after the fact. The paper explains why these particular categories differ from other crimes, and why these categories require a different kind of approach from police.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Organized Crime Hate Crime Ritual Crimes Law Enforcement Perspective
Conclusion
From the Paper "Community policing is a term that is becoming increasingly common in police studies and practice. This is a natural result of the increase in the responsibility of the police in a complex and modern environment. This means that policing has to deal not only with the effects of crime but also with the underlying causes of criminal acts in order to be effective. This is especially the case with regard to forms of crime such as hate and ritual crimes which have sensitive and far-reaching social implications. In this regard the responsibility of the police is being shared with other institutions and the community in order to provide a more adequate and comprehensive solution to contemporary crime issues."
