Abstract The paper explains how Benjamin Franklin's and Thomas Jefferson's works (Autobiography and Declaration of Independence respectively) reflect the Enlightenment beliefs. The paper continues by briefly describing the Enlightenment movement and its ideas. The paper also examines why the United States was considered "a child of the Enlightenment."
From the Paper "Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were the leading intellectuals in eighteenth-century America. Both thinkers were steeped in the traditions of the Enlightenment and both earned praise for their erudition from Europeans at a time when America was considered a howling wilderness. David Hume, the Scottish philosopher, deemed Franklin the leading man of letters on the North American continent. Jefferson, for his part, was the brain behind the American Revolution."
Tags: Franklin, Jefferson, Enlightenment, Declaration of Independence
Abstract This paper explores some of the key ideas and participants in the Age of Enlightenment. The paper examines the Age of Enlightenment, in terms of its significance on influencing the historical record. It describes this period of philosophical advancement and discusses how the period was affected by the Age of Reason in which scientific theories were explored with increasing significance, and how that gave rise to a new understanding of humankind's relationship with the world.
From the Paper "Assessing Enlightenment Thought and the Works of Key Enlightenment Figures Introduction When examined in terms of its significance on influencing the historical record, the Age of Enlightenment was one of the most profoundly significant periods in European history. The Enlightenment is a period of philosophical advancement that, when coupled with the corresponding Age of Reason in which scientific theories were explored with increasing significance, gave rise to a new understanding of humankind's relationship with the world. This paper shall explore some of the key ideas and participants in the Age of Enlightenment. The Principles and Participants in the Age of Enlightenment The concept of empirical thought was fundamental to the Age of Enlightenment; while brief glimpses of empiricism were seen in the Renaissance, those active within the Enlightenment tended to perceive associations between objects that were directly caused by action and reaction (Gay, 12-13)."
Abstract The paper examines how the age of Enlightenment is a remarkable period in human history. The writer proposes that never before, not even in the era of Arabic and Greco-Roman philosophers, has there been such strong influences predisposing an intellectual revolution. The paper describes how the Renaissance had ushered in a new way of looking at the world, but those working within the Enlightenment period worked to define new modes of thought or clarify new directions for accepted areas of discourse. This paper briefly outlines why these topics are critical to modern thinking.
From the Paper "Alan Charles Kors' expansive Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment is difficult to describe in brief; the text contains more than three hundred individual articles on the enlightenment and the wide range of influences that both contributed to and were affected by the Enlightenment period. The scope of these many articles reflects upon not just the Enlightenment period but also help define and describe how change affects all human beings, regardless of their social and cultural circumstances. The Age of Enlightenment is a remarkable period in human history. Never before, not even in the era of Arabic and Greco-Roman philosophers, had there been such strong influences predisposing an intellectual revolution."
Abstract In their essay, "The Concept of Enlightenment," authors Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno chart the process of humanity's efforts to better understand their place within existence, a process that Horkeimer and Adorno refer to as efforts to become enlightened through exploring the influences and, to varying degrees, the abandonment of the practices of mythology, magic and theology. This paper explores these issues in contrast with the Holocaust.
From the Paper "The current rise of science as a dominant world view and thus the method through which human beings are currently able to frame issues beyond their immediate range of experience and perception is, Horkeimer and Adorno believe, merely the latest dominant model through which human beings are seeking to explore the world and achieve a more enlightened state of mind."
Abstract The paper looks at people who consider themselves members of the counter-culture; those disaffected with the world today. It takes an in-depth look at the clothes that they wear to identify themselves and discusses the meaning behind this choice.
From the Paper "As the world shrinks with the growing access to communication media and globalization, the signs of the counter-culture increase. Fighting against the corporate take over of the world, devastation of the environment, and unjust labour practices; people who identify themselves as members of the counter-culture have devised their own unique codes of meaning through the use of clothing. The actual articles are pieces that can be readily seen by others, appropriately framed to look hap-hazard and often layered to demonstrate a flexible range of meanings. The main pieces include exterior clothing,..."
Abstract The paper is based on an article about the results of "Newtonianism", and includes two other brief references to show the decline of Roman Catholic authority and the rise of secular science and reason. The paper examines how this occurred mainly in northern and central Europe, ending the medieval period's combined power of church and state .The paper explains which elements have been carried on to the present, asking a final question of how much of western culture is not a result of the Enlightenment.
From the Paper "Scientific and intellectual developments of the 17th century in Europe made for great popular faith in human reason that came to influence, strongly, ideas and activities in the next two centuries. By separating science from the absolute authority of religion that had dominated much of European society, for centuries, all phenomena came to be discussed according to objective, scientific models. Through the medieval period that gave way to the Enlightenment, a very paternal attitude had been taken in which free thinking was seen as dangerous by the Church that had great influence over all social life, and also, political life."
Abstract This paper examines historian Arthur M. Melzer's interpretation of Rousseau's "New Religion of Sincerity", including his critiques of both the Church and the philosophes and his belief in the primacy of the individual's personal relationship to God.
From the Paper "In his article, Melzer poses the question of whether Rousseau's counter-Enlightenment conception of religion was a resurgence of traditional belief or if it continued the Enlightenment in some fundamental way. Melzer bases his arguments on several of Rousseau's writings, especially the Social Contract and Emile. Melzer also compares Rousseau's ideas with those of other philosophes like Voltaire. Melzer concludes that Rousseau's new "religion of sincerity" grew out of both the Enlightenment's criticisms of Christianity and Rousseau's similar criticisms of the philosophes themselves. Melzer begins by outlining Rousseau's criticisms of Christianity: primarily, that it is incompatible with republican virtues, and that it destroys the unity of the state and of the very soul. Melzer draws quotes primarily from Emile and from the Social Contract to support his characterization of Rousseau as highly critical of Christianity, both as it exists in practice and in theory."
Abstract George Orwell's novel "1984" is certainly one of the seminal works of the twentieth century. As such, "1984" has been the subject of much literary criticism. This criticism has identified certain main themes in the novel. One main theme of "1984" is totalitarianism, although critics disagree about whether the book is modeled after past totalitarian societies, is a theory of totalitarianism, or both. Another major strain of critical thought is that "1984" is an anti-Enlightenment novel. Thie essay reviews seven literary critics' interpretations of the theme of "1984". All seven writers identify the main themes as one of the two main themes mentioned above.
From the Paper "Irving Howe also interprets 1984 as a totalitarian novel based upon events in recent history. As Howe states, "No other book has succeeded so completely in rendering the essential quality of totalitarianism" (324). What that means, in practical terms, "is that in a totalitarian world man's life is shorn of dynamic possibilities" (Howe 324). Everything is controlled; nothing is left to chance. The powers that be determine the course of one's life. Like Rahv, Howe equates Goldstein with Trotsky (326). Howe, however, is less interested in the actual parallels between Stalinism and the government of Oceania. What he is particularly interested in is the relevance 1984 has to a modern audience. Howe argues that Orwell's novel is a warning to non-totalitarian societies that they must be ever vigilant."
Abstract This paper examines how revolutionary changes in the leadership of 18th century France did not occur overnight or with some sudden spark of defiance by citizens. It looks at how the events and ideals that led to the French Revolution were part of a gradual, yet dramatic, trend toward individualism, freedom, liberty, self-determination, and self-reliance, which had been evolving over years in Europe, and which would be called the Enlightenment. It examines and analyses the dynamics of the Enlightenment, and also those individuals who contributed to the growth of the Enlightenment and to the ultimate demise of the Monarchy, in terms of what affect it had on the French Revolution.
Outline
Thesis
Introduction to the French Revolution
Social Issues leading up to the French Revolution
The Enlightenment's Historical Origins
The Scientific Revolution was one of the Engines Driving the Enlightenment Michel de Montaigne, Charles Montesquieu and Rene Descartes
Enlightenment Heavyweights: Voltaire vs. Rousseau
Rousseau's Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789)
The Enlightenment's Direct Impact on the Revolution
Conclusion
From the Paper "When the legitimate question is raised as to what role, if any, The Enlightenment played in the French Revolution, the best evidence from credible historic sources is that The Enlightenment did indeed play an important role in the transformation of key social and political dynamics leading up to and through the French Revolution. The trends in the early to middle 18th Century indicate that Europeans were in the midst of dramatic social change. For one, secularization was taking place: the Church was losing its once-powerful position; people were no longer true and total believers in the Church's dogma that citizens would be damned if they strayed to a place outside the boundaries of the Church's influence."
Abstract This paper looks at the process of gentrification and counter-gentrification in a particular Toronto neighborhood, known as Kensington Market. It argues that counter gentrification is currently a very powerful force in Kensington Market. It suggests that Kensington Market is too popular of an area to remain unaffected by gentrification and that it is also quite possible that counter-gentrification may unintentionally create the perfect conditions for gentrification to take hold.
Table of Contents:
Kensington Market
Car Free Sundays and the Anti-Corporate Movement
Are Counter Gentrification Forces Being Successful
Counter Gentrification Becoming a Force of Gentrification
Conclusions
Appendix
From the Paper "The resistance to this store was led by a performance artist going by the name Reverend Billy and his church of Church of Stop Shopping. In essence this group preformed a very large performance piece in front of the Freshmart. This brought a great deal of negative publicity to the Freshmart (Shiff 2004: 1). The goals of these activities were to make life difficult for corporate businesses so they might close down. It also serves as a disincentive to corporate businesses so that they are less likely to set up operations in Kensington Market."
Abstract This paper compares the paths to enlightenment espoused in Theravada, Zen, and Vajrayana Buddhism. The paper first relates that, from Siddhartha Guatama's teachings, were born numerous schools of Buddhism, each with similar Buddhist principles, but also with contrasting paths to enlightenment. The paper then relates in the Theravada school, nirvana and enlightenment can be reached through detachment from the greater world, possessions, and desire. Zen, however, holds that meditation, discipline, and defiance of rational thought can lead to enlightenment. Whereas, in Vajrayana Buddhism, ritual, meditation and shamanistic elements in "the Diamond Vehicle" are paramount. The paper concludes that all forms of Buddhism use similar core ideas, but use different methods to pursue the enlightenment of the soul.
From the Paper "The ideal of Theravada is to become arhat, or arahant , in Pali. This is equivalent to "worthy one", or "perfect being" (144, Molloy). To become araht, one must have realized enlightenment, Nirvana, and at last be free of the cycle of reincarnation. Essential wisdom is attained through individual effort, guided by the principles outlined in the Tripitaka. Monks must come to wisdom by their own efforts. They do not rely on prayer or divine focal points. An understanding of anatman; the nature of the self, is key to Theraveda enlightenment. One must come to realize that ego, the self, is a delusion, one that must be released in order to reach nirvana (131, Molloy). A core practice in the pursuit of mindfulness, and subsequent wisdom in Theravada tradition is through Vipassana meditation. "
Abstract This paper examines the contributions of Thomas Jefferson to the United States, and focuses upon how and why he promoted enlightenment ideals during his public life. The author discusses how Jefferson personified the enlightenment in America, how he tirelessly championed enlightenment ideals and philosophies, and rejected the evils of government and society that the enlightenment exposed. He concludes that Jefferson was a talented writer, an idealistic politician, a successful farmer, a progressive architect, and the author of a vision of hope that inspired the young nation he led.
Abstract There is much debate over whether Catherine the Great was an enlightened despot. This paper discusses that, despite contentions that her policies were enacted to only benefit herself, Catherine the Great studied the works of leading enlightened thinkers so that she could make educated decisions for her country. It explains how Catherine the Great's exact goals as a ruler may be found in her 1766 work, entitled "Instructions to the Commissioners for Composing a New Code of Laws," which references enlightened thinkers of the day and promoted the creation of a free society. Although Catherine the Great did not achieve all of her enlightened goals, she took steps that allowed them to be realized in the future.
From the Paper "Despite occasional shortcomings, Catherine the Great ruled Russia as a true enlightened despot from 1762 to 1796. During that time, she corresponded with many renowned thinkers of the enlightenment and converted their theories into law. Additionally, she made significant agricultural and scientific reforms, and she attempted to bring equality to Russian society. Although she failed to end serfdom, she promoted the ideals of equality for all under the law. Because of this, Catherine the Great must be considered a dedicated and successful enlightened despot."
Abstract This essay discusses philosopher Immanuel Kant's approach to the Enlightenment as presented in his work, "What is Enlightenment". The author of the paper addresses the following questions: Why did Kant choose to address the Enlightenment as he did? Is his approach as narrow as it seems to be? What exactly was the Enlightenment? Was it arborescent or rhizomatic? Depending on how it is defined, what approach should be taken to this phenomenon?
From the Paper "The Enlightenment is an enigma in that it represents an abrupt transition from the thought of the preceding period with a subsequent transformation of all social and cultural institutions. Yet, Kant treats the Enlightenment by using an apparently very narrow focus which leads to numerous problems. "
This paper examines the Counter-terrorism Office of the United States Government - an office which goes by the title, Office of the Coordinator for Counter-Terrorism.
Abstract This paper looks at the directives which guide the actions of the Office of the Coordinator for Counter-Terrorism, as well as its strategies and tactics, its various functions and programs and how the office is organized. The paper highlights how much changed in America after 9/11, especially for a government branch devoted to intelligence-gathering and to security. The paper discusses how the Counter-terrorism Office has grown, with its associations with other government agencies, increasingly complex and involved.
From the Paper "Whatever the criticisms leveled against the Bush Administration's "War on Terror" by its critics, few can dispute that the United States must pursue a forceful policy against terrorist activities if it is to secure its safety at home and abroad. Certainly, recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the attention granted to anti-terror measures and institutions in light of the fact that 9/11 proved, once and for all, that America too is vulnerable to terror assaults. In addition to the heightened interest surrounding the anti-terror tools America had in place prior to 9/11, the last five-and-a-half years has borne witness to the creation of new institutions geared expressly to fighting terrorism - the National Counter-Terrorism Center chief among them."
