Abstract
The paper relates that stress is something that all humans experience. The paper then explores the research on the effects of stress on the individual.

Tags:circadian, cortisol, memory

Abstract
The paper illustrates the relationship between stress load and stress response and its affect on working memory during the typical circadian cycle. The paper's methodological approach relies on the hypothesis that magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be accurately utilized to identify neural activation patterns related to Cortisol that is released due to stress. The paper concludes that greater research is necessary in order to attain a better understanding of how Cortisol, through its derivatives and precursors, impacts the brain's ability to enable memory.

Outline:
Introduction
Stress Hormone: Cortisol
Cortisol Receptor Distribution
The Frontal Lobe and Working Memory
Circadian Effects, Glucocorticoids and Imagery

From the Paper
"Stress is something that all humans experience. It is, in fact, part of the human experience. Yet, the affect of stress on the individual as well as its effects to the person experiencing it has been variously conceived by many researchers since its recognition as valid topic of research. While it is clear that most individuals conceive stress in different ways as an emotional response to various circumstances, the medical and psychological community have identified stress, or rather the body's reaction to it, as a having a potentially negative impact on individual health, mental performance, as well as memory (Zautra 36-8). In the area of mental performance and memory, stress and stressful situations greatly impact individual ability to perform to one's ability."

Tags:Magnetic, Resonance, Imaging, circadian, cycle, Cortisol, HPA, axis

Abstract
In this article, the writer maintains that developers of research designs need to take all relevant processes into account if their results are to have validity. The writer notes that many researchers conducting functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tests fail to take the time of day into consideration. The writer points out that this can lead to error given that cortisol levels are different throughout the course of a day. This is important because cortisol can cross the blood-brain barrier and bind to receptors in the hippocampus and frontal lobe. The writer explains that this can then have an impact on the neural activation/deactivation process, meaning the BOLD (blood oxygen level dependent) in the MRI study and produce results that will not be properly interpreted unless the time of day is included as a variable.

From the Paper
"Higher levels of cortisol are associated with stress, and cortisol levels vary throughout the day just as levels of stress will vary throughout the day. Because cortisol can cross the blood-brfain barrier and bind to the hippocampus, levles of cortisol can have an effect on the neural activation and deactivation of the BOLD levels and so alter the results of the MRI. Time of day thus becomes an element in the process so that the clinician knows what time of day the examination was made and how high the levels of cortisol might be at different tiemns of the day."

Tags:cortisol, blood, pressure, tests, diagnosis

Abstract
The paper outlines the article entitled, "Social Networks and Memory Function" by Michael Craig Miller that shows how people who have tighter social circles may be less apt to develop memory loss. The paper then reviews the research from "Psychology Today" entitled "The Aging Brain" that explores the effects of cortisol on memory loss and finally, examines the article "Memory Starts Declining By Mid-20s" from "USA Today" that shows how memory loss already begins in the mid-20s. The paper points out how more research can be done on all three studies and suggests a future research design that will utilize all three factors of socializing, stress and the rate of memory loss.

Outline:
Part One: Introduction of Articles
Part Two: More Research Required
Part Three: Research Design

From the Paper
"Why is it that some people have memory loss as they age and others do not? What are some of the factors that contribute to memory loss and can they be used to prevent loss of cognitive ability? In an article entitled, "Social networks and memory function" (Miller 2008), research has shown that people who have tighter social circles may be less apt to develop memory loss. In a study that took place over several years - from 1998 to 2004 - researchers could "draw conclusion about the crucial issue of causation" (2008). The main question the researchers wanted to answer is whether social integration helps protect against memory loss, or is it that people who are suffering from memory loss are less likely to socialize?"

Tags:social, integration, cortisol, stress, brain, hippocampus

Abstract
This paper presents an analysis of the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on learning and memory. It compares and contrasts two articles related to PTSD - "Learning and Memory in Veterans with PTSD Learning and Memory in Aging Combat Veterans with PTSD" by Yehuda et al and "Cortisol, Learning, Memory, and Attention in Relation to Smaller Hippocampal Volume in Police Officers with Post-traumatic Stress Disorder" by Lindauer et al.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Article Summary
Comparison
Merits
Overall Assessment

From the Paper
"When comparing the two articles it is important to remember that each was testing a different hypothesis and that the general age ranges of the first was younger than the general age range of the second article in question."
"The first article did in fact display a measurable correlation between a reduced hippocampal and memory and learning function. While it could not prove causation the study did create a bridge linking the two together. The second study seemed to agree as it concluded the aging veterans had definite learning issues in the area of long term free recall tasks and the diagnosis of PTSD(Taylor, et al, 2005).
However, another important comparison of the two points to the fact that both studies suggest that perhaps it is not PTSD causing the issues, but other organic events. PTSD may be reacting to the natural aging process of the brain in a different way than non PTSD individuals react to those same natural organic events that go with aging.
Because the first examination showed a correlation between a reduced hippocampi and memory, it extended the results of the second article study that showed aging PTSD veterans have a measurable issue with certain memory tasks as compared to their non PTSD peers(Taylor, et al, 2005)."

Tags:cortisol, hippocampi, mental, health

Abstract
This paper examines the different types and causes of stress and looks at their impact on the body. In particular, it reviews the literature and proposes a study to investigate the effects of physical and mental stress on both short and long-term memory.

Outline:
What is Stress?
Types of Stress
Symptoms of Stress
Stress and Memory
Analysis of Questionnaire
Analysis of Pulse Rate
Analysis of Blood Pressure
Analysis of Salivary Cortisol Levels
Results of Memory Clinic Tests
Limitations of the Study
Suggestions For Additional Research
Conclusion

From the Paper
"On a lighter note, research has found that the Cortisol induced inhibition of short-term memory is reversible. Elzinga documented that though working memory was inhibited in the Stress State, the rats returned to normal functioning after only ten days of non-stress situations (2005). Signifying with appropriate coping and managing stress individuals can ensure their health. There are a number of ways in which individuals can reduce the effects of stress in their lives. Exercise, proper diet and relaxation techniques can help with releases for built up tension and stress for individuals. Exercise has proven very effective in stress reduction."

Tags:relaxation, Cortisol, pulse, long, short, term, hypertension

Abstract
In this paper the writer explains that Cushing's disease is caused by the overproduction of something called cortisol. Whether your body naturally overproduces this hormone, or your body receives too much cortisol in steroid medications used as treatment for other diseases, it can lead to development of Cushing's disease. The writer thoroughly examines classic symptoms and the various treatments of this disease.

From the Paper
"The life of someone with either Cushing's disease or Cushing's syndrome depend on the severity of the cortisol excess, the duration, the overall health of the person, and the type (as well as curability) of the Cushing's syndrome. Resolution of the symptoms after being cured can take 18 months, during which time some patients are frustrated with the slow progression of their recovery (Margulies). When Cushing's syndrome cannot be cured, a lifetime of dealing with persistent fatigue, weakness in the muscles, abdominal and facial weight gain, depression, and all the aforementioned symptoms (Margulies). "

Tags:medical, syndrome, pituatiry, gland, steroids

Abstract
This paper deals with scientific work that has been carried out over recent years to identify a small group of chemicals and hormones that regulate the processes of the body and the brain. The author provides comprehensive information regarding various hormones that are produced in the body, their importance and how they can affect an individual's diet.

Outline:
Introduction
Cortisol
Estrogen and Progesterone
Testosterone
DHEA
Stress and the Diet
Hormone Replacement Therapy
Conclusion

From the Paper
" Within the last fifteen years or do, research scientists have identified a small group of chemicals and hormones that regulate the processes of the body and the brain, such as insulin (diabetes), adrenaline, noradrenaline and glucagon, "a hormone that stimulates the conversion of glucogen into glucose in the liver and often is linked with hypoglycemia (Parry, 2005, p. 256). And within the last ten years, these same scientists have discovered that the chemical/hormonal story is considerably more complex, due to finding hundreds of newly-identified compounds that regulate a person's mood, his/her susceptibility to particular diseases, and especially what a person eats, i.e. that these chemicals are secreted and made active by certain types of food based on diet and intake.
"At least seventy neurotransmitters (chemicals that modify or result in the transmission of nerve impulses between brain synapses), have also been identified which regulate nerve function, including memory, mental function, mood, movement, the wake-sleep cycle and appetite. The disruption of even one neurotransmitter significantly alters nerve cell function and causes a reaction which affects all other neurotransmitters, profoundly affecting many natural processes in the brain and the body."

Tags:weight, lifestyle, appetite, body

Abstract
Examination of Fragile X Syndrome from a genetic, neurological, and neuro-psychological perspective. Includes current research on this disorder. It provides information about the characteristics of the disorder, treatment available, and medical research performed. It also examines how this disorder affects a sufferer's daily life.

Table of Contents
I. Introduction
i. Physical characteristics
ii. Behavioural and non-physical characteristics
II. Neuronal Development
i. Normal development
ii. Development in FraX
III. Fragile X Mental Retardation Gene (FMR1)
i. FMR1 and FraX
ii. Gender differences
IV. Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP)
i. FMR1 mutation and FMRP
ii. FMRP and synaptic plasticity
iii. Evidence from animal models and non-human studies
iv. FMRP as mRNA-binding protein
V. Molecular-Genetic Basis of Fragile X Syndrome
i. Normal development
ii. Moderate FMRP deficiency
iii. Severe FMRP deficiency
iv. Mechanism of FMRP in mediating neuronal development
VI. FMRP and Development of Fragile X: Hypotheses
i. FMRP and synapse formation during development
ii. FMRP and translation at postsynaptic site
VII. FRAXE and FMR2
i. Mutation and phenotype
VIII. Brain Abnormalities
i. Evidence from structural magnetic resonance imaging studies
IX. Neuro-psychological Profiles
i. Males with FraX
ii. Females with FraX
X. Current Research
i. Cortisol and stress-related behavior in children with FraX
ii. Neurocognition in female permutation carriers
iii. FRAXE and obsessive-compulsive disorder
iv. Fragile X permutation and neurologic disorders
XI. Future Directions of Research
i. Potential areas of exploration
ii. Treatment
XII. References

From the Paper
"Fragile X syndrome (FraX) is the single most common form of inherited mental impairment (Glaser et al., 2003). Studies place prevalence rates of the disorder at approximately 1 in 2000-5000 live births, affecting as many as 1 in 4000 females and twice as many males (Churchill et al., 2002). It is second only to Down syndrome as a cause of mental impairment and appears in children of all ethnic, racial, and socio-economic backgrounds (Fragile X Association, 2003). The pace of research into the genetic, molecular, anatomical, neuropsychological, and psychosocial factors underlying this disorder has grown at an exponential rate in recent years. FraX is described by Nobel Laureate and co-discoverer of the DNA double-helix, Dr. James D. Watson, as the "first major triumph of the genome project" (FRAXA Research Foundation, 2002), and its potential as a paradigm of study by which to understand normal and disordered processes of development is immeasurable."

Tags:developmental, disorders, genetics, neurology, neuropsychology, psychology

Abstract
This paper takes a look at the issue of anxiety. According to the paper, ongoing high levels of stress can be a major contributing factor to chronic anxiety. The paper discusses how stress hormones, cortisol and corticotripin-releasing hormone which normally react against stress, helping the the human body to cope, can increase anxiety and mood disorders if they remain in the body for long periods of time.

From the Paper
"The researchers charted stressful life events as the children grew up - from ages 21 to 26 - such as employment, financial, housing, health, and relationship problems. Among their problems were debt, homelessness, disabling injury, and abuse. There was no difference in the number of stressful life events between the groups that had the different genes. At age 26, 17% had developed major depression and 3% had either attempted or thought about suicide. Ten percent with the short gene - and who experienced four or more life stresses - accounted for nearly 25% of the 133 cases of depression. The finding could lead to new therapies or diagnostic tests for vulnerability to depression, says Caspi (2003). "

Tags:sadness, depression, meditation, therapy, coping, techniques, serotonin, brain, chemical