Abstract The paper illustrates the relationship between stress load and stress response and its affect on working memory during the typical circadian cycle. The paper's methodological approach relies on the hypothesis that magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be accurately utilized to identify neural activation patterns related to Cortisol that is released due to stress. The paper concludes that greater research is necessary in order to attain a better understanding of how Cortisol, through its derivatives and precursors, impacts the brain's ability to enable memory.
Outline:
Introduction
Stress Hormone: Cortisol Cortisol Receptor Distribution
The Frontal Lobe and Working Memory
Circadian Effects, Glucocorticoids and Imagery
From the Paper "Stress is something that all humans experience. It is, in fact, part of the human experience. Yet, the affect of stress on the individual as well as its effects to the person experiencing it has been variously conceived by many researchers since its recognition as valid topic of research. While it is clear that most individuals conceive stress in different ways as an emotional response to various circumstances, the medical and psychological community have identified stress, or rather the body's reaction to it, as a having a potentially negative impact on individual health, mental performance, as well as memory (Zautra 36-8). In the area of mental performance and memory, stress and stressful situations greatly impact individual ability to perform to one's ability."
Abstract In this article, the writer maintains that developers of research designs need to take all relevant processes into account if their results are to have validity. The writer notes that many researchers conducting functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tests fail to take the time of day into consideration. The writer points out that this can lead to error given that cortisol levels are different throughout the course of a day. This is important because cortisol can cross the blood-brain barrier and bind to receptors in the hippocampus and frontal lobe. The writer explains that this can then have an impact on the neural activation/deactivation process, meaning the BOLD (blood oxygen level dependent) in the MRI study and produce results that will not be properly interpreted unless the time of day is included as a variable.
From the Paper "Higher levels of cortisol are associated with stress, and cortisol levels vary throughout the day just as levels of stress will vary throughout the day. Because cortisol can cross the blood-brfain barrier and bind to the hippocampus, levles of cortisol can have an effect on the neural activation and deactivation of the BOLD levels and so alter the results of the MRI. Time of day thus becomes an element in the process so that the clinician knows what time of day the examination was made and how high the levels of cortisol might be at different tiemns of the day."
Abstract This paper examines the different types and causes of stress and looks at their impact on the body. In particular, it reviews the literature and proposes a study to investigate the effects of physical and mental stress on both short and long-term memory.
Outline:
What is Stress?
Types of Stress
Symptoms of Stress
Stress and Memory
Analysis of Questionnaire
Analysis of Pulse Rate
Analysis of Blood Pressure
Analysis of Salivary Cortisol Levels
Results of Memory Clinic Tests
Limitations of the Study
Suggestions For Additional Research
Conclusion
From the Paper "On a lighter note, research has found that the Cortisol induced inhibition of short-term memory is reversible. Elzinga documented that though working memory was inhibited in the Stress State, the rats returned to normal functioning after only ten days of non-stress situations (2005). Signifying with appropriate coping and managing stress individuals can ensure their health. There are a number of ways in which individuals can reduce the effects of stress in their lives. Exercise, proper diet and relaxation techniques can help with releases for built up tension and stress for individuals. Exercise has proven very effective in stress reduction."
Abstract This paper presents an analysis of the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on learning and memory. It compares and contrasts two articles related to PTSD - "Learning and Memory in Veterans with PTSD Learning and Memory in Aging Combat Veterans with PTSD" by Yehuda et al and "Cortisol, Learning, Memory, and Attention in Relation to Smaller Hippocampal Volume in Police Officers with Post-traumatic Stress Disorder" by Lindauer et al.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Article Summary
Comparison
Merits
Overall Assessment
From the Paper "When comparing the two articles it is important to remember that each was testing a different hypothesis and that the general age ranges of the first was younger than the general age range of the second article in question."
"The first article did in fact display a measurable correlation between a reduced hippocampal and memory and learning function. While it could not prove causation the study did create a bridge linking the two together. The second study seemed to agree as it concluded the aging veterans had definite learning issues in the area of long term free recall tasks and the diagnosis of PTSD(Taylor, et al, 2005).
However, another important comparison of the two points to the fact that both studies suggest that perhaps it is not PTSD causing the issues, but other organic events. PTSD may be reacting to the natural aging process of the brain in a different way than non PTSD individuals react to those same natural organic events that go with aging.
Because the first examination showed a correlation between a reduced hippocampi and memory, it extended the results of the second article study that showed aging PTSD veterans have a measurable issue with certain memory tasks as compared to their non PTSD peers(Taylor, et al, 2005)."
Abstract In this paper the writer explains that Cushing's disease is caused by the overproduction of something called cortisol. Whether your body naturally overproduces this hormone, or your body receives too much cortisol in steroid medications used as treatment for other diseases, it can lead to development of Cushing's disease. The writer thoroughly examines classic symptoms and the various treatments of this disease.
From the Paper "The life of someone with either Cushing's disease or Cushing's syndrome depend on the severity of the cortisol excess, the duration, the overall health of the person, and the type (as well as curability) of the Cushing's syndrome. Resolution of the symptoms after being cured can take 18 months, during which time some patients are frustrated with the slow progression of their recovery (Margulies). When Cushing's syndrome cannot be cured, a lifetime of dealing with persistent fatigue, weakness in the muscles, abdominal and facial weight gain, depression, and all the aforementioned symptoms (Margulies). "
Abstract The paper describes the chemical process of the brain whereby memory is affected by stress. It discusses several experiments which were carried out to determine whether stress effects the brains of men and women differently. The paper explains that the results showed that the effect was purely chemical and not psychological and therefore it did not differentiate between the sexes.
From the Paper "It is important to note that stress is not age-restrictive. Young children are as susceptible to stress as adults. Some of the things that have been known to cause stress in young children are changing schools, problems with peers, injuries or severe illness, recent move to a new home, loss of anything valuable to the child, parents' divorce, separation or marital conflict, inadequate physical resources-food, clothing, shelter, etc., recent death of a loved one-parent, grandparent, sibling, friend, constant fatigue brought about by inadequate rest, sleep or recreation, regular conflict between your child and another family member, close friend or school teacher."
Abstract Examination of Fragile X Syndrome from a genetic, neurological, and neuro-psychological perspective. Includes current research on this disorder. It provides information about the characteristics of the disorder, treatment available, and medical research performed. It also examines how this disorder affects a sufferer's daily life.
Table of Contents
I. Introduction
i. Physical characteristics
ii. Behavioural and non-physical characteristics
II. Neuronal Development
i. Normal development
ii. Development in FraX
III. Fragile X Mental Retardation Gene (FMR1)
i. FMR1 and FraX
ii. Gender differences
IV. Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP)
i. FMR1 mutation and FMRP
ii. FMRP and synaptic plasticity
iii. Evidence from animal models and non-human studies
iv. FMRP as mRNA-binding protein
V. Molecular-Genetic Basis of Fragile X Syndrome
i. Normal development
ii. Moderate FMRP deficiency
iii. Severe FMRP deficiency
iv. Mechanism of FMRP in mediating neuronal development
VI. FMRP and Development of Fragile X: Hypotheses
i. FMRP and synapse formation during development
ii. FMRP and translation at postsynaptic site
VII. FRAXE and FMR2
i. Mutation and phenotype
VIII. Brain Abnormalities
i. Evidence from structural magnetic resonance imaging studies
IX. Neuro-psychological Profiles
i. Males with FraX
ii. Females with FraX
X. Current Research
i. Cortisol and stress-related behaviour in children with FraX
ii. Neurocognition in female permutation carriers
iii. FRAXE and obsessive-compulsive disorder
iv. Fragile X permutation and neurologic disorders
XI. Future Directions of Research
i. Potential areas of exploration
ii. Treatment
XII. References
From the Paper "Fragile X syndrome (FraX) is the single most common form of inherited mental impairment (Glaser et al., 2003). Studies place prevalence rates of the disorder at approximately 1 in 2000-5000 live births, affecting as many as 1 in 4000 females and twice as many males (Churchill et al., 2002). It is second only to Down syndrome as a cause of mental impairment and appears in children of all ethnic, racial, and socio-economic backgrounds (Fragile X Association, 2003). The pace of research into the genetic, molecular, anatomical, neuropsychological, and psychosocial factors underlying this disorder has grown at an exponential rate in recent years. FraX is described by Nobel Laureate and co-discoverer of the DNA double-helix, Dr. James D. Watson, as the "first major triumph of the genome project" (FRAXA Research Foundation, 2002), and its potential as a paradigm of study by which to understand normal and disordered processes of development is immeasurable."
This paper discusses, in detail, that, in some sports, especially wrestling, the consequences of over-training can be devastating and can lead to permanent injuries and even death.
14,905 words (approx. 59.6 pages), 85 sources, MLA, $ 249.95
Abstract This paper explains that the quest for the gold medal and the residual fame and fortune forces younger athletes from college and high school to over-train, especially in wresting where there is a motivation to reduce weight and perform at a lower weight category to have a superior strength advantage. The author points out some of the symptoms of over-training are the decreased ability to perform in terms of strength, power, muscle endurance, cardiovascular endurance and flexibility, a decreased in tolerance to training, prolonged recovery times, altered resting heart rate, chronic fatigue, involuntary eating disorders, disruptions in menstrual cycles, and psychological problems. The paper proposes that IgA, a protein of the family of immunoglobulins found in the mucus membrane of the mouth, be used as a marker of over-training.
Table of Contents
Preamble
The Problems
Dehydration
Over-Training
Symptoms of Over-Training
Injuries from Over-Training
Physiological Markers
Guidelines to Avoid Over-Training
Over-Training and A Weakening Immune System
Supporting Evidence for Proposal
Conclusion
From the Paper "The Profile of Mood States is an important psychological marker that can be used to create an emotional profile of an athlete. This is a high profile often used questionnaire than is extensible to different surroundings. The original questionnaire contained sixty-five questions. Later the questions were reduced to thirty. Test subjects often have to rate different psychological parameters on a scale of one to five. One being "no influence;: five being "completely affected." The questionnaire is subdivided into six subheadings: Tension-anxiety, Depression-dejection Anger-hostility, Vigor-activity (physical or mental strength), Fatigue-inertia (Remaining inactive) and Confusion-bewilderment. In order to avoid confusion with the answers of athletes who might not be completely forthcoming Morgan and co-workers developed graphical representations of the Profile of Mood States. This is called the Morgan Iceberg profile."
Abstract This paper explains that coronary heart disease (CHD) was infrequent well into the twentieth century and the increase in coronary heart disease in following years, in western societies, cannot be attributed to factors such as hereditary or an increase in the population of older individuals. The author explains that the rapid increase in industrialization in the U.S. culture creates individual competitiveness, which places more stress on the individual since success or failure is the responsibility of the individual perceived to be his or her burden alone, which can result in anger and emotions such as frustration, tension and sadness that have a negative physiological effect on the body. The paper stresses that counseling including behavior modification, medication prescribed for anxiety and depression, involvement in support groups and social settings and various relaxation techniques can help reduce stress and thereby prevent CHD.
From the Paper "In addition to its potential to raise blood pressure and contribute to hardened arteries, researchers believe that anger arouses the involuntary nervous system--the network that controls unconscious bodily functions like digestion, sweating, and heartbeat. Specifically, they think it prompts the release of stress hormones such as cortisol and catecholamines (cat-e-COL-uh-meenz). Over time, having too many stress hormones floating through the system can damage the heart muscle and the delicate linings of surrounding blood vessels as well as disrupt the heart's electrical rhythm. In addition, stress hormones trigger the biochemical process that causes blood platelets to become sticky and clump together--a process that has been implicated in the formation of artery-clogging plaque. This hostility, which continues over time, is considered a "chronic" form of stress."
Abstract This paper discusses how neurobiological researchers have shown that emotions such as fear, stress, arousal and valance (positivity and negativity) all play a role in stimulating the brain in such a way that learning and memory occur. This paper focuses on the effect these emotions have on the learning process.
From the Paper "Stress is another emotion that plays a vital role in learning and memory. Stress is actually the heightened awareness that one experiences in a situation where the outcome or consequences may be higher than normal. Everyone experiences stress to some degree on a daily basis; however, it is the most stressful situations that arouse the brain triggering the release of stress hormones. Within milliseconds of the stressful situation, epinephrine and norepinephrine are secreted. Seconds later, the secretion of cortisol follows. Research has shown that these stress hormones act on the brain and thereby modulate cognition, learning and memory. Therefore, a person who is under a lot of stress will be more likely to learn and recall information than someone who is not under a lot of stress."
Abstract This paper presents, in the form of a case study, general background information about Addison's disease. It describes how the patient develops Addison's disease, its symptoms and the testing that is done in order to determine in the symptoms are caused by Addison's disease. The paper presents a differential diagnosis for the patient and discusses the potential cures and treatments for the disease.
From the Paper "Modern day research can be presented to Skyla, and she can be reassured by the fact that there are many scientist and researchers working to find a better and shorter term cure for the disease that she is apparently suffering from. Anti-inflammatory or corticosteroid and immunosuppressive, or in other words, cyclosporine treatment and drug therapy is the method that is being used extensively today to treat autoimmune diseases. However, research is being conducted on how to improve the treatment methodologies, and thereby offer more benefits to the patients of these diseases. Future treatments of these diseases, like for example, Addison's disease, would probably include better and more sophisticated methods of treatment, which would be completely based on today's modern day understanding of the human immune system. Some examples are anti-idiotype antibodies, antigen peptides, anti-IL2 receptor antibodies, anti-CD4 antibodies, anti-TCR antibodies, and so on. Today, both experimental as well as natural animal models are being made just for the purpose of developing a better understanding and comprehension of the autoimmune system of the human body. (Tolerance and Autoimmunity)"
Abstract This paper takes a look at the issue of anxiety. According to the paper, ongoing high levels of stress can be a major contributing factor to chronic anxiety. The paper discusses how stress hormones, cortisol and corticotripin-releasing hormone which normally react against stress, helping the the human body to cope, can increase anxiety and mood disorders if they remain in the body for long periods of time.
From the Paper "The researchers charted stressful life events as the children grew up - from ages 21 to 26 - such as employment, financial, housing, health, and relationship problems. Among their problems were debt, homelessness, disabling injury, and abuse. There was no difference in the number of stressful life events between the groups that had the different genes. At age 26, 17% had developed major depression and 3% had either attempted or thought about suicide. Ten percent with the short gene - and who experienced four or more life stresses - accounted for nearly 25% of the 133 cases of depression. The finding could lead to new therapies or diagnostic tests for vulnerability to depression, says Caspi (2003). "
Tags: sadness, depression, meditation, therapy, coping, techniques, serotonin, brain, chemical
Abstract This paper deals with scientific work that has been carried out over recent years to identify a small group of chemicals and hormones that regulate the processes of the body and the brain. The author provides comprehensive information regarding various hormones that are produced in the body, their importance and how they can affect an individual's diet.
Outline:
Introduction
Cortisol Estrogen and Progesterone
Testosterone
DHEA
Stress and the Diet
Hormone Replacement Therapy
Conclusion
From the Paper " Within the last fifteen years or do, research scientists have identified a small group of chemicals and hormones that regulate the processes of the body and the brain, such as insulin (diabetes), adrenaline, noradrenaline and glucagon, "a hormone that stimulates the conversion of glucogen into glucose in the liver and often is linked with hypoglycemia (Parry, 2005, p. 256). And within the last ten years, these same scientists have discovered that the chemical/hormonal story is considerably more complex, due to finding hundreds of newly-identified compounds that regulate a person's mood, his/her susceptibility to particular diseases, and especially what a person eats, i.e. that these chemicals are secreted and made active by certain types of food based on diet and intake.
"At least seventy neurotransmitters (chemicals that modify or result in the transmission of nerve impulses between brain synapses), have also been identified which regulate nerve function, including memory, mental function, mood, movement, the wake-sleep cycle and appetite. The disruption of even one neurotransmitter significantly alters nerve cell function and causes a reaction which affects all other neurotransmitters, profoundly affecting many natural processes in the brain and the body."
Abstract The paper discusses the types of pain that include chronic pain, acute pain and breakthrough pain. The paper looks at the methods to make an effective diagnosis of pain and provides an understanding of how pain occurs. The paper then explores alternative therapies for pain and focuses on massage therapy and deep breathing. The paper concludes that there is enough evidence that unconventional and alternative strategies for treatment can have beneficial effects.
Outline:
Introduction
Mechanism of Pain
Kinds of Pain
Alternative Therapies for Pain Management
Massage Therapy
Use of Massage Therapy
Deep Breathing
Conclusion
From the Paper "There is a journal that is dedicated to the subject of pain--Pain. Pain is an important aspect of life because it is the mechanism by which the body protects itself. The capacity to monitor the integrity of our bodies and to be made immediately aware of injury through the experience of pain is critical for our survival. Individuals who are born without this capacity frequently die at relatively young ages from injuries or illnesses that they never realized they had. There are different therapeutic modalities to treat pain. Of these, massage therapy or deep breathing are two. The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as "... an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage."(Merskey, 1979) Margaret McCaffrey, a social scientist and registered nurse was quoted in cancer-pain.org as saying: "Pain is whatever the experiencing person says it is, and exists whenever he says it does." (McCaffrey, 1972)"
Tags: nerves, stress, cortisol, relaxation, wellbeing, immune, system
