Abstract This paper explores the role of the cerebral cortex in the human brain. The physiology of this part of the brain is presented in detail. Additionally, the function of the cerebral cortex is discussed, especially in light of new scientific research. The paper also examines the evolution of this part of the brain. The author also considers the relationship between the cerebral cortex and intelligence. The author concludes that cognitive psychologists strived hard to learn more about the structure and functions of cerebral cortex. The neurons of the cerebral cortex exert the highest level of regulation in the status of the nervous system.
From the Paper "The cerebral cortex refers to a structure of brain among the vertebrates that takes into account humans as well. As the outermost layers of the cerebrum are normally of grey color, it is commonly called as grey matter. The grey matter is constituted by neurons and their unmyelinated fibers and the white matter the layer below the grey matter is constituted primarily by myelinated axons. This links the various regions of the central nervous system. The thickness of human cerebral cortex measures up to 2 to 4 mm which is 0.08 to 0.16 inches and normally is folded. The outermost layer of the cerebral cortex in respect of higher animals, particularly among the higher mammals, appears to be folded. As a result of this many grooves on the outermost layer of the brain known as sulci are formed. There also exist some ridges on the outermost layer of the brain known as gyri. Such folding of the cortex enhanced the cortical surface area. (Cerebral cortex: Wikipedia)"
An analysis of G. Potts, L. Martin, P. Burton and P. Montague's article, "When Things are Better or Worse than Expected: The Medial Frontal Cortex and the Allocation of Processing Resources."
Abstract This paper reviews Potts, Martin, Burton and Montague's examination into the way the brain processes information, specifically how it orders and accesses data to know what is the most relevant information. It looks at their 2006 article, "When Things are Better or Worse than Expected: The Medial Frontal Cortex and the Allocation of Processing Resources."
Table of Contents:
Summary
Analysis
From the Paper "The authors consider some models for this process that have been offered by other theorists. Data that is considered task-relevant is data with motivational value, meaning they confer rewards or punishment. Activity has been identified in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), ventral striatum, and medial and orbito-frontal cortex for reward signals. Research has shown many of the specific mechanisms involved, such as the pairings of VTA neurons and what makes them fire. How these neurons fire has been demonstrated not simply to code reward but to code how reward outcome relates to expectation. Another identified component is ERN (error-related negativity), associated with the monitoring of ongoing behavior rather than attention selection. However, in some tasks, the brain has insufficient information to evaluate whether a response is correct or not, in which case feedback is needed to make an assessment. In such a case, the ERN is elicited to the feedback rather than the response."
Abstract The author examines the different ways in which the structure of the brain has been conceived, and looks at some of the areas of the brain associated with different functions such as "neurons", the resultant effects if these are damaged, the spinal cord, external stimuli to the brain and memory function.
From the paper:
?Beneath and behind the cerebral cortex, at the base of the brain, lies the cerebellum or ?little brain.? The cerebellum is most closely associated with coordinating voluntary movement (that is, movement under our conscious control) and with remembering complex physical tasks such as riding a bicycle or performing the steps in a dance.?
Abstract The effects of alochol abuse on the unborn child, on society and on relationships are quite wellknown, but the fact that alcohol can affect the brain is a fact that is less known. The paper shows that in fact alcohol stops the cortex from serving its role in integrating cognitive processes, resulting in disorganized thinking and motor control difficulties. The paper examines research that shows that individuals with a history of chronic alcohol abuse had significantly smaller brains than non alcoholic individuals. Finally, the paper concludes that continuous research on the subject may help combat alcoholism in the future.
From the Paper "The actions of several neurotransmitters are significantly affected by the actions of alcohol. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is one of the most prevalent neurotransmitters in the human brain, and alcohol is clearly linked to affects on the GABAergic system in the human brain. For example, the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal are reduced by blocking the activity of the neurotransmitter by the use of drugs that are well known to block GABA receptors. This evidence suggests that alcohol may play an important role in the biological underpinnings of human alcoholism. Researchers have also noted that tolerance and dependence on alcohol can be explained by the neuropharmacological effect of chronic alcohol use (Brain & Mind Magazine)."
Abstract The human brain is mind boggling when one thinks of all the intimate parts and how they affect learning. The study of Neuroanatomy of the brain and learning styles helps individuals to try to understand their individual dominance in right/left hemisphere. The paper studies several sources of literature where experiments were carried out to test right/left dominance, and discusses their results. Methods used by psychologists such Nagae are also discussed.
From the Paper "In this study students were instructed to make a fist with their thumb pointing upward at an arms length away. Once they lined up with the target, they were asked to close their left eye and decide if it was still on target. Once they did this, they were asked to line up their thumbs on target and asked to close their right eye. Which eye was closest to target? They divided the students into right/left and mixed dominant sections. The students were then told how to do create a hypercard. The assignment was to create a sales presentation to an imaginary client. They were asked to indicate their right/left or mixed brain dominancy.
"The findings demonstrated the right-brain dominant individuals outperformed the left-brain and mixed-brain dominant students."
A paper which studies the effects of the Superfund Neurotoxin Methylazoxymethanol (MAM) on brain dendritic spine density in long hooded Evans Rats Rattus norvegicus.
Abstract The paper shows that in the study of structural development in the brain there have been several proposed biomarkers for quantifying brain plasticity. These include but are not limited to cortical thickness, dendritic length and branching, expression of neuronal proteins, and the presence of DNA adducts. The paper discusses the theory that a measure of brain plasticity emerging late in embryonic development will be a very sensitive biomarker for detecting subtle damage suffered by brain cells during earlier stages of brain development not detectable by other means. The paper shows that to test this, the effects of a neurotoxin on the late developing dendritic spines were studied. A significant decrease in spine density was observed as the neurotoxin, methylazoxymethanol, increased. The author of the paper shows how the implications are widespread in the study of neuro-degenerative disease.
From the Paper "Fifty years ago, Donald Hebb demonstrated that the conditions under which laboratory rats were housed could significantly affect their performance in a variety of complex spatial tasks later in life (1). The complex environment rearing paradigm has been valuable in assessing plasticity of a variety of brain components including cerebral cortical microvasculature, astrocyetic morphology, dentritic branching patterns, synaptic number, and synaptic structure are all affected by complex environment rearing (2). It has been suggested that multiple synaptic contacts (spines) may play a role in the spread of the additive effect of learning known as potentiation, among neighboring unstimulated neurons. A lack of these spines and their connection with boutons of neighboring neurons could then result in a decrease in the capacity for learning. Some recent work has indicated that the presence of multiple synaptic contacts may be altered by experience. Most of this research has focused on structural changes in the hippocampus. Dendrtic spines show great variability in structure and connectivity, both within and across brain structures, including 10-fold differences in length and diameter as well as variations in the number of branches and spines per dendrite."
Abstract This paper examines the gender differences of the two sexes and the conceptual paradigm that rules them. It describes marked difference in the emotional expression of men and women and the masculine mask. The author writes that we are now aware that boys tend to have a highly developed right brain whereas girls have a well-developed left brain.
Table of Contents
Introduction
The Brain
The Sociological Pressure (Emotion and its Expression)
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "There has been increasing amount of research devoted to discerning the role of gender and its influence in the emotional response to a particular situation. These researches have added weight to the presumption that the structural differences of the cerebral cortex has a substantial influence in triggering emotional responses and the differing reactions in men and women to an external stimuli. Let us have a brief outlook of the psychological and biological effects that contribute to the differing emotional responses (in men and women) and the scientific explanation for the same."
Abstract This paper defined traumatic brain injury and explains that it can occur in two ways - closed head injury and penetrating head injury. The paper then looks at the kind of damage these injuries could cause and how they could affect a person's daily functioning. It then shows how, often, serious criminals suffered a serious head wound in their earlier life which causes the brain to have minimalized moral judgement.
From the Paper "What do P"le, Steve Young, Bobby Joe Long and Timothy McVeigh have in common" At one point or another, all have suffered traumatic brain injuries. P?le's injuries were from a soccer ball and Steve Young's injuries were from repeatedly being sacked; both were expected as professional athletes; however, Bobby Joe suffered from many serious head injuries starting from childhood but culminating with a life-threatening motorcycle accident that left him in a coma for many days. Timothy McVeigh also ?sustained three mild head injuries during his youth.? "
Abstract Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a neuro-degenerative disorder producing deterioration of the motor cortex and motoneurons of the brainstem and spinal cord. In particular, patients are affected by the vulnerability of the cranial motoneurons that assist speech and swallowing. The disease usually leads to death in 3 to 5 years due to respiratory complications.
Abstract This paper explains that there are differing viewpoints in mind when attempting to ascertain what the sole cause of aggressive behavior actually is. It discusses that this is due to the fact that aggressive behavior is a complex relationship between chemical, structural and behavioural factors. This paper tries to define the causes of aggressive behavior.
From the Paper 'Aggression is behaviour motivated by the intent to harm or injure another human being, animal or inanimate object through physical or psychological means (Klein, 2000). From a behavioural perspective aggression is hypothesised to be learned and maintained through social experiences. Learned behaviour through social experiences is identified as social learning theory and can take the form of exposure to direct or vicarious experiences (Bandura, 1973). A competing hypothesis to Bandura's social learning theory is social cognition in which the development of aggressive styles of behaviour is acquired early in the lifespan in the form of scripts (internal representations of how to behave in particular situations). Scripts are maintained through rehearsal in which the individual assesses later situations and determines whether the previously learnt script fits the presented situation (Huesmann, 1994). Biologically speaking there are many hypothesised explanations such as a reduction in serotonin (Klein, 1992), increase in testosterone (Rosenweig, Breedlove & Leiman, 2001), structural or metabolic differences in the prefrontal cortex (Raine, 2002) and structural differences in the amygdala (Barrett, Dunbar & Lycett, 2002). However a sole definitive origin for aggressive behaviour either biologically or behaviourally remains unknown."
Abstract This paper examines how the obvious biological differences between men and women have inspired a search for corresponding mental differences. It looks at how much of the oppression suffered by women in the traditionally patriarchal world of business and society has been blamed on the preconceived notion that women were somehow not as good as men in certain areas and how the rise of feminism negated all such difference. It analyzes, through a literature review, how recent research has brought to light new information regarding definite biological differences in the brains of girls and boys and how the true effect of these differences on behavior appears to be the issue of current debate.
From the Paper "Further revealing studies are cited by Cathy Young (1999). According to research, much overlap exists in studies conducted to determine behavioral differences between boys and girls. Three out of 10 boys for example exhibited behavior that correlated well with the behavior of five out of 10 girls. Such findings are not sufficiently conclusive to substantiate the theory that brain differences make a substantial difference in behavior. Young holds that gender differences should thus not be viewed in the extreme, but rather, as mentioned above, as a guideline for optimally educating boys and girls."
Abstract IL-7 and KL are stroma-derived cytokines, both of which are necessary for the proliferation, survival and differentiation of thymocytes. This paper show that the loss of intrathymic IL-7 production may underlie various forms of acquired immunodeficiencies, such as those occurring after BMT, HIV infection or during aging. The paper concludes that data indicates that the CD45- HLA-DRdim TEC are the only intrathymic source of IL-7 and KL in the human thymus. These cells are present in both the cortex and medulla of the thymus and direct infection of the TEC is not a mechanism for impaired thymopoiesis in active HIV infection.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Study Design
FACS Analyses
RT-PCR
Immunostaining
HIV Challenge and Analysis
Results and Discussion
Acknowledgments
References
From the Paper "KL exists in both membrane-bound and secreted isoforms, which result from differential splicing. Inclusion of the 6th exon results in a transcript encoding the transmembrane domain of the membrane-bound form.
RT-PCR primers designed to detect each KL isoform as different sized products demonstrated the presence of both transcripts in the CD45- HLA-DRdim populations, but no other sorted populations of thymic cells.11 Since thymocytes express both the IL-7 receptor and c-kit, the expression of both IL-7 and KL by the same TEC infers that the thymocytes are stimulated simultaneously through the IL-7R and c-kit interaction."
Abstract This paper studies the effects of child abuse on the brain, particularly during its development in childhood. The paper reports that children who have been abused have different sized cortex and cerebellum. The paper examines the consequences of these differences and the neurobiological changes they product in children and adults.
From the Paper "Child abuse as well as physically and emotionally affecting a child can actually change the structure and function of the brain and these changes are not limited to physical and sexual abuse but also occur with verbal abuse, according to Martin Teicher professor of..."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the functioning of our visual sensory system. According to the paper, the systems involved in visual processing are constantly being bombarded with various stimuli. The paper goes on to discuss how several factors influence the process of visual information, including visual masking, spatial location and color of stimuli, the manner in which stimuli are grouped, as well as expectation of the presentation of visual stimuli.
From the Paper "The actual pathways on which spatial information and feature information, such as color, travel from the eye to the brain may be separate but parallel (Grabbe & Pratt, 2004). This would mean that there is a fundamental anatomical and functional difference in the way these types of information are processes. Furthermore, "selection happens by differential activation (excitation, inhibition, or both), of certain representations (not necessarily location representations) (Grabbe & Pratt, 2004)". What are the specific anatomical areas responsible for spatial and nonspatial information? Spatial information is routed into posterior parietal areas, while nonspatial information is directed into inferior temporal cortical areas."
Abstract The paper outlines the organization of our body and explains the meaning of the term 'homeostasis'. The paper focuses on the adrenal glands and their function, which is to help the body cope with stresses and emergencies. The paper discusses adrenal fatigue, its signs and symptoms and its treatments.
Outline:
The Body Organization
Homeostasis
Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Fatigue
Signs and Symptoms
Treatments
Flu, Allergies and the Adrenals
From the Paper "The human body is an organized system, which consists of cells, tissues, organs and organ systems (Degen 2008). A cell is the basic unit of structure and function in every living thing or organism. It performs the basic functions to keep the organism alive. Most cells are microscopic. Each cell is covered by a cell membrane. Inside it is the nucleus, which controls and directs the cell's activities. It also contains all the information on the cell's characteristics. Cells form a tissue to perform the same function. The four basic types of tissue are muscle, nervous, connective and epithelial. Tissues, in turn, form an organ."
