Abstract
This paper explores the role of the cerebral cortex in the human brain. The physiology of this part of the brain is presented in detail. Additionally, the function of the cerebral cortex is discussed, especially in light of new scientific research. The paper also examines the evolution of this part of the brain. The author also considers the relationship between the cerebral cortex and intelligence. The author concludes that cognitive psychologists strived hard to learn more about the structure and functions of cerebral cortex. The neurons of the cerebral cortex exert the highest level of regulation in the status of the nervous system.

Outline:
Introduction
Cerebral Cortex-Physiological Structure
Cerebral Cortex and intelligence
Cerebral Cortex-Properties
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The cerebral cortex refers to a structure of brain among the vertebrates that takes into account humans as well. As the outermost layers of the cerebrum are normally of grey color, it is commonly called as grey matter. The grey matter is constituted by neurons and their unmyelinated fibers and the white matter the layer below the grey matter is constituted primarily by myelinated axons. This links the various regions of the central nervous system. The thickness of human cerebral cortex measures up to 2 to 4 mm which is 0.08 to 0.16 inches and normally is folded. The outermost layer of the cerebral cortex in respect of higher animals, particularly among the higher mammals, appears to be folded. As a result of this many grooves on the outermost layer of the brain known as sulci are formed. There also exist some ridges on the outermost layer of the brain known as gyri. Such folding of the cortex enhanced the cortical surface area. (Cerebral cortex: Wikipedia)"

Tags:brain, cerebral, cortex, biology, neuropsychology

Abstract
The paper relates that the human brain is known to be asymmetrical, wherein different types of emotions are associated with different sides of the brain, however, which emotions are associated with the left side and which are associated with the right side is still a subject of controversy. There are questions whether the right brain is involved with anxiety and/or depression; this article investigates the frontal brain asymmetry (FBA) by using a new method in measuring metabolic changes in the frontal lobes of the brain when anxiety is induced. The researchers' hypothesis was that anxiety is associated with an increased metabolic activity in the right frontal cortex.

From the Paper
"The human brain is known to be asymmetrical, wherein different types of emotions are associated with different sides of the brain. However, which emotions are associated with the left side and which are associated with the right side is still a subject of controversy. There are questions whether the right brain is involved with anxiety and/or depression."

Tags:brain, asymmetry, anxiety

Abstract
This paper reviews Potts, Martin, Burton and Montague's examination into the way the brain processes information, specifically how it orders and accesses data to know what is the most relevant information. It looks at their 2006 article, "When Things are Better or Worse than Expected: The Medial Frontal Cortex and the Allocation of Processing Resources."

Table of Contents:
Summary
Analysis

From the Paper
"The authors consider some models for this process that have been offered by other theorists. Data that is considered task-relevant is data with motivational value, meaning they confer rewards or punishment. Activity has been identified in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), ventral striatum, and medial and orbito-frontal cortex for reward signals. Research has shown many of the specific mechanisms involved, such as the pairings of VTA neurons and what makes them fire. How these neurons fire has been demonstrated not simply to code reward but to code how reward outcome relates to expectation. Another identified component is ERN (error-related negativity), associated with the monitoring of ongoing behavior rather than attention selection. However, in some tasks, the brain has insufficient information to evaluate whether a response is correct or not, in which case feedback is needed to make an assessment. In such a case, the ERN is elicited to the feedback rather than the response."

Tags:medial frontal cortex, VTA ventral cognitive neuroscience

Abstract
The effects of alcohol abuse on the unborn child, on society and on relationships are quite well-known, but the fact that alcohol can affect the brain is a fact that is less known. The paper shows that in fact alcohol stops the cortex from serving its role in integrating cognitive processes, resulting in disorganized thinking and motor control difficulties. The paper examines research that shows that individuals with a history of chronic alcohol abuse had significantly smaller brains than non alcoholic individuals. Finally, the paper concludes that continuous research on the subject may help combat alcoholism in the future.

From the Paper
"The actions of several neurotransmitters are significantly affected by the actions of alcohol. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is one of the most prevalent neurotransmitters in the human brain, and alcohol is clearly linked to affects on the GABAergic system in the human brain. For example, the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal are reduced by blocking the activity of the neurotransmitter by the use of drugs that are well known to block GABA receptors. This evidence suggests that alcohol may play an important role in the biological underpinnings of human alcoholism. Researchers have also noted that tolerance and dependence on alcohol can be explained by the neuropharmacological effect of chronic alcohol use (Brain & Mind Magazine)."

Tags:ethanol, occipital, cortex, Gamma-aminobutyric, acid, GABA

Abstract
The author examines the different ways in which the structure of the brain has been conceived, and looks at some of the areas of the brain associated with different functions such as "neurons," the resultant effects if these are damaged, the spinal cord, external stimuli to the brain and memory function.

From the paper:

"Beneath and behind the cerebral cortex, at the base of the brain, lies the cerebellum or "little brain." The cerebellum is most closely associated with coordinating voluntary movement (that is, movement under our conscious control) and with remembering complex physical tasks such as riding a bicycle or performing the steps in a dance."

Tags:Robert, Ornstein, Richard, F., Thompson, Cerebral, Cortex, Cerebellum, Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Pituitary, Gland

Abstract
This paper examines ten different sections of the human brain, giving the importance of each to the everyday action of taking a shower. The ten brain sections that are identified, discussed, and analyzed are: the cerebellum, the medulla oblongata, the pons, the reticular formation, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the amygdala, the hippocampus, the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex, and the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex.

From the Paper
"This paper shall look at ten different sections of the human brain, giving the importance of each to the everyday action of taking a shower. The ten brain sections to be identified, discussed, and analyzed will be: the cerebellum, the medulla oblongata, the pons, the reticular formation, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the amygdala, the hippocampus, the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex, and the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex.
"The first brain structure that is important while taking a shower is the..."

Tags:brain, structure, shower

Abstract
This paper discusses the brain, a wonderful and complex mechanism which is still largely undiscovered territory with infinite possibilities. The writer explains that this infinite capacity is the result of a complex interaction between the structures of our brains; these structures have more than one function. By describing the different areas of the brain and its structures and functions, and explaining with lucid examples from the writer's own experience how these structures are used in everyday life, the paper brings home to the reader with vivid immediacy how the brain controls our whole body.

Outline:
Brain Diagram
The Reticular Formation
The Medulla
The Cerebellum
The Basal Ganglia
The Basal Forebrain
The Basal Forebrain
Hypothalamus
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Frontal Lobe
Primary Motor Cortex
Brocas's Area
Parietal Lobe
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Occipital Lobe
Temporal Lobe
Wernicke's Area
Corpus Callosum

From the Paper
"The basal ganglia appear to coordinate movement, cognition and voluntary movement. The basal ganglia are located deep inside of the cerebral hemispheres, in the telecephalon area of the brain. The telencephalon area is the anterior portion of the brain. The exact function of the basal ganglia in behavior is not totally established, but it appears to be the "traffic cop" so to speak, that decides which of the actions the cortex may be planning, to act on, to carry out. It is responsible for making sure that movement results in a pleasurable reward; this structure increases activity when the reward is pleasurable, and does not increase activity when the results do not include a reward. This structure has been implicated in Parkinson's Disorder."

Tags:stimulus spatial sulcus impulse pituitary hormone midbrain, spinal cord, pons

Abstract
This paper studies the effects of child abuse on the brain, particularly during its development in childhood. The paper reports that children who have been abused have different sized cortex and cerebellum. The paper examines the consequences of these differences and the neurobiological changes they product in children and adults.

From the Paper
"Child abuse as well as physically and emotionally affecting a child can actually change the structure and function of the brain and these changes are not limited to physical and sexual abuse but also occur with verbal abuse, according to Martin Teicher professor of..."

Tags:child abuse, hippocampus, brain size

Abstract
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a neuro-degenerative disorder producing deterioration of the motor cortex and motoneurons of the brainstem and spinal cord. In particular, patients are affected by the vulnerability of the cranial motoneurons that assist speech and swallowing. The disease usually leads to death in 3 to 5 years due to respiratory complications.

Tags:acoustics, perception speech

Abstract
IL-7 and KL are stroma-derived cytokines, both of which are necessary for the proliferation, survival and differentiation of thymocytes. This paper show that the loss of intrathymic IL-7 production may underlie various forms of acquired immunodeficiencies, such as those occurring after BMT, HIV infection or during aging. The paper concludes that data indicates that the CD45- HLA-DRdim TEC are the only intrathymic source of IL-7 and KL in the human thymus. These cells are present in both the cortex and medulla of the thymus and direct infection of the TEC is not a mechanism for impaired thymopoiesis in active HIV infection.

Table of Contents:

Abstract
Introduction
Study Design
FACS Analyses
RT-PCR
Immunostaining
HIV Challenge and Analysis
Results and Discussion
Acknowledgments
References

From the Paper
"KL exists in both membrane-bound and secreted isoforms, which result from differential splicing. Inclusion of the 6th exon results in a transcript encoding the transmembrane domain of the membrane-bound form.
RT-PCR primers designed to detect each KL isoform as different sized products demonstrated the presence of both transcripts in the CD45- HLA-DRdim populations, but no other sorted populations of thymic cells.11 Since thymocytes express both the IL-7 receptor and c-kit, the expression of both IL-7 and KL by the same TEC infers that the thymocytes are stimulated simultaneously through the IL-7R and c-kit interaction."

Tags:murine, BMT, thymic, stromal, cells, RNA