Abstract
An account of the paradigm shift in astronomy between the geocentric theories of Ptolemy and the heliocentric theories of Copernicus and Galileo.

From the Paper
"The transition of science in general and astronomy in particular from the Ptolemaic to the Copernican universe vividly demonstrates how social and cultural concerns can sometimes override technical ones. That is, even when confronted with verifiable facts that change what is known about the universe, those who are overwhelmingly attached to the comfortable truisms of their culture are likely to resist the new knowledge. Apart from the losses to the body of shared knowledge and understanding that such resistance can foster, there is the more vexed problem that when..."

Tags:asatronomy, astrology, geometry, physical sciences, church, Galileo, Copernicus, Ptolemy

Abstract
This paper looks at how Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, all provided different proof, facts, and theories about the universe in support of a heliocentric universe. These three pioneers sparked the movement from the old world view to the new by proving the universe's existence can be explained by scientific theories that are supported by mathematical equations.

From the Paper
"Thinkers during the medieval times grew up on Aristotelian physics. This Ptolemaic theory claimed that bodies of matter always moved to their natural places. This belief maintained that stones fell because their natural place was the center of the universe: the earth. Many people saw truth in this theory mainly due to a severe lack of education. In addition, the people of these times were highly dependent on guidance from the church. When the church claimed something to be true, then it was so even if the claim being made was completely void of any explanation: dogma."

Tags:universe, planet, church

Abstract
This paper discusses the relationship between science and religion. It specifically discusses why scientific discoveries, such as those furthered by Copernicus and Kepler during the middle ages and early renaissance, were often greeted with fear and rejection. The paper also discusses the Copernicus model for the universe and the beliefs that it challenged.

From the Paper
"The scientific revolution that altered the manner in which we see ourselves in the natural world, began in many ways with Copernicus, who furthered an idea, against tradition but still very much in line with a non-confrontational development of science and religion meeting. Copernicus was aware of the challenges that would be given his theory and tried almost without ceasing to build a holistic position for his opinion that would not insult the faith or challenge the social structure. Copernicus was educated through the faith, as was almost any literate soul in his era, he dedicated his work to the Pope and contracted its printing through a Bishop. There is no sense, whatever that Copernicus was acting in any way other than as a Shepard of science. He was aware of these observations and spoke to them with math and observation, even when they were contrary to his faith."

Tags:tradition, universe, faith

Abstract
This paper reviews and analyzes "The Book Nobody Read" by Owen Gingerich. According to the paper, the back cover o fthis book seemed like a scientific book based on the works or Nicolaus Copernicus. The book further outlines a quest for knowledge from an intellectually investigative approach and tackled some social and political issues that still plague the society today. This paper provides a brief overview of the style, language, approach, and audience the book used or targeted.

From the Paper
"The Book Nobody Read by Owen Gingerich from the back cover seemed like a scientific book based on the works or Nicolaus Copernicus. I was pleasantly surprised when I began to read the book and realized it was more of an adventure that elegantly outlined the author's intellectual journey into scientific history that involves parties from all walks of life. The book outlines a quest for knowledge from an intellectually investigative approach and tackled some social and political issues that still plague the society today. The book is organized around Gingerich's exploration of numerous copies of..."

Tags:copernicus, history, science

Abstract
This paper explores Galileo's theories about science and the universe, pointing out how they differed from contemporary outlooks at his time. The paper discusses Galileo's use of observation and mathematics to prove scientific theories. Additionally, Galileo is shown to have proven a number of Copernicus' theories based on observation. The paper includes Galileo's letter to the Grand Duchess Christina in which he discusses his beliefs about science and the Bible. The paper concludes by stating that the Scientific Revolution that Galileo helped to foment if not carry out was built on a quest for truth, and would have been pointless if it had ended by accepting older dogmas simply because they used to work, and did so for so long.

Outline:

Introduction
The Starry Messenger
The Math Behind the Revolution
Galileo's Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina
A Response Letter to the Same Duchess
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Galileo did not just contribute to science, he almost invented it. He was among the first to bring a serious mathematical attention to issues in nature, observing, cataloging, and analyzing numerically rather than making assumptions based on perception alone. More than anything else, Galileo taught the world--or at least the small portion of it that was really paying attention to him--how scientific investigation was to be carried out if the results were to be reliable. The Scientific Revolution was a beast largely of Galileo's own making; one could say the he was martyred for or alternately became a traitor to this cause, and he wouldn't be the first or the last of either of these things. But attempts to come up with a single figure who had as much of an impact on the development of science at the time than Galileo Galieli are failed, and a small treatise called The Starry Messenger is a large part of the reason why."

Tags:heliocentric universe, Copernicus, Aristotle, mathematical measurement

Abstract
This paper examines "The Book Nobody Read" by Owen Gingerich which elegantly outlines the author's intellectual journey into scientific history that involves parties from all walks of life. The paper looks at how the book outlines a quest for knowledge from an intellectually investigative approach and tackles some social and political issues that still plague the society today. The paper also examines how the book focuses on the works of Nicolaus Copernicus.

From the Paper
"The book is organized around Gingerich's exploration of numerous copies of Copernicus classical works that made the claim that the Sun rather than the earth was the center of the universe, and all planets (including Earth) were orbiting the Sun. This is a rather profound statement that contradicts all scientific theory surrounding the existence and astronomy of the planets. The title seemed somewhat 'weird', but I later found out the origin was based on a rebuttal to a statement made by Arthuir Koestler (author of the seminal work Sleepwalkers), who called Copernicus; "the book nobody read". However Gingerich used a content analysis approach to scrutinize and examine copies of works of Copernicus and found that contrary to the statement made by Koestler, these works were read by many individuals, some were important scientists, philosophers, religious affiliates and so on."

Tags:Nicolaus, Copernicus, science

Abstract
This paper discusses the history of the microscope as the result of the combined efforts of various scientists; Copernicus, Galileo, Leeuwenhoek and others, over a period of time. The paper addresses the complexity of the microscope's development as a valuable scientific tool.

From the Paper
"The invention of the microscope was not, as it happens, the result of efforts undertaken by a single individual, rather the microscope emerged as a result of the combined efforts of various scientists over a period of time. A facile summary of its development was provided by Patricia Barnes-Svarney who stated that; "The first compound microscope was probably invented by Hans and Zacharias Janssen, father and son. A more powerful microscope using various power lenses was developed around..."

Tags:microscopes, scientists, Copernicus, Galileo, Leeuwenhoek

Abstract
A paper which considers how the work of Kepler, Newton, Copernicus, Brahe, Ptolemy and Galileo overlapped, how one discovery influenced another and how the work of these scientists helped form the foundation of modern scientific knowledge of the physical sciences. The paper studies the life histories of each of these scientists.

From the Paper
"Galileo was appointed professor of mathematics at Padua, his duties included to teach the geometry of Elucid, and geocentric, astronomy to the medical students. However it is noted that he discussed more natural philosophy and forms of non standard astronomy, this was also carried out in a public lecture in reference to a New Star that had appeared, now known as Kepler s supernova. Galileo also wrote personally to Kepler stating that he was a follower of the Copernican theory, however there was no outward evidence of this until many years later (Field, 1995)."

Tags:Greek, historian, Copernican, theory, planetary, motion, binomial, theorem, Kepler, Newton, Copernicus, Brahe, Ptolemy, Galileo

Abstract
This paper explores the discovery and subsequent study of gravity over the centuries. The paper begins by describing what gravity is. Then, it notes how the ancient Greeks, particularly Aristotle, observed the heavens and earth's place within them. This is followed by a discussion of various other philosophers and scientists and their discoveries over history. These include Isaac Newton, Ptolemy, Copernicus, Galileo Galilei and Einstein. The paper concludes with a lengthy discussion of Einstein's Theory of Relativity and how it relates to gravity.

Outline:

Summary
Aristotle
Ptolemy and Copernicus
Isaac Newton
Galileo Galilei
Albert Einstein and the Modern Theory of Gravity

From the Paper
"By the time of the invention of the telescope, scientists realized that other planets also had moons that orbited them and that models of the solar system in which the sun rather than the earth was at the center matched the observed orbital motions of the planets much more accurately than the earth-centered models promoted by the Church. The mechanical models devised to explain the planetary orbits described what was observed fairly accurately, in addition to proposing an explanation for the effects of gravity, if not for the manner in which it came about."

Tags:Isaac Newton, universe, Albert Einstein, relativity

Abstract
This paper describes the Medieval world that William Manchester reveals in his book, then describes the shattering that this world underwent after the year 1500 due to the brilliance and daring of great individuals such as Savonarola, Copernicus, Da Vinci, Machiavelli, Erasmus, More, and Luther.