Abstract
This paper examines the mathematical event known as the Copernican Revolution. This revolution was the introduction of natural laws into the world of science and religion.

Abstract
The paper highlights the role of David Hume and Immanuel Kant in rescuing the tradition of rationalism, specifically Hume's "science of man" and Kant's "Copernican revolution of the mind" which places man at the center of all reasoning. The paper shows how both Hume and Kant are engaged in constructing a metaphysics of morality where they reject the concept of certainty in a materially objective sense.

From the Paper
"The atomists of ancient Greece tried to overcome uncertainty by ideas and concentrating on material substance, picturing it as composed of indestructible fundamental units, which Democritus labeled 'atoms'. Of course, this too was a concept, but by picturing the metaphysical building block of the universe in such tangible terms he turned epistemology into a science, and in the process gave birth to the notion of determinism - ie certainty as obtained through empirical investigation. Determinism was a reinvigorated quest with the advent of the European Renaissance."

Tags:empiricism, Cartesian, determinism, free, will, reason, Descartes, Newton

Abstract
This paper discusses the philosopher, astronomer, writer and mathematician, Galileo Galilei (known to most people as Galileo). The paper discusses Galileo's life and theories and then focuses on his belief in the Copernican system (that the Earth goes around the sun) and the tension that this caused between him and the Church.

From the Paper
"Vincenzo's death in 1591 gave Galileo a much more worrying legacy: the financial dependence of the rest of the family. His chair in Mathematics was not enough to support what seems to have been a large family, and certainly not to provide dowries (cash payments which women brought to a marriage) for his sisters. Galileo was head of the household, and now responsible for the rest of the family. This necessity forced Galileo to leave his post at Pisa, and move to the University of Padua, in Venice."

Tags:sun, moon, mathematician, Vatican

Abstract
This paper explains Galileo's profound contribution and decisive arguments to those who legitimately sought to discredit the Ptolemaic theory.

Abstract
In the paper, Galileo's early life, family life, education and contributions are discussed. His specific contributions to astronomy are noted, along with the controversy that resulted from his presentation of the Copernican System.

From the Paper
"The following presents a detailed report on Galileo. His early life, family life, education and contributions are discussed. His specific contributions to astronomy are noted, along with the controversy that resulted from his presentation of the Copernican System.
"Galileo was a physicist, astronomer, mathematician and philosopher who was born in Italy in to his father, Vincenzo Galilei, who was a musician and his mother, Giulia degli Ammannati Galileo, was the first of six or seven siblings, most believing it was six children..."

Tags:galileo

Abstract
The paper looks at how Galileo Galilei, in his work "The Starry Messenger", presents a detailed account of his astronomical discoveries with aid of the newly-invented telescope. This essay argues the thesis that while the ultimate purpose of Galileo in writing his work was the advancement of a revolutionary system of planetary movement - the Copernican system - from theory to demonstrated fact, his underlying methodology is no less important. The paper shows how the transparency with which Galileo presents his discoveries, as well as the emphasis he places on ensuring these discoveries are able to be replicated by others, characterizes his work as a scientific enterprise.

From the Paper
"Galileo Galilei, in his work "The Starry Messenger", presents a detailed account of his astronomical discoveries with aid of the newly-invented telescope. This essay will argue the thesis that while the ultimate purpose of Galileo in writing his work was the advancement of a revolutionary system of planetary movement - the Copernican system - from theory to demonstrated fact, his underlying methodology is no less important. As will be seen, the transparency with which Galileo presents his discoveries, as well as the emphasis he places on ensuring these..."

Tags:science, history, discovery

Abstract
This paper discusses the life and discoveries of Galileo. It specifically discusses the conflict of Galileo's discoveries with the Catholic Church. It looks at his work in the sciences of astronomy, physics and mathematics and his adoption of the Copernican astronomical theory. The paper also looks at the Catholic Church's reactions to his views.

From the Paper
"In the end, Galileo forever changed the the sciences of astronomy, physics and mathematics. Despite the attempts by the Church to silence his revolutionary work, Galileo continued. His work, was evaluated and validated by observers across Europe, in England, German and France. And, it would be Galileo's work that would encourage experimentation in physics, to test mathematical and physical laws. Sadly, it wouldn't be until more than 300 years later that the Church would recant their views, with Cardinal Paul Poupard, the head of an investigation by the church into Galileo's theory, statement in 1992 that said, "We today know that Galileo was right in adopting the Copernican astronomical theory" (qtd. Brauchli )."

Tags:Copernicus, relativity, Pope

Abstract
This paper analyzes Kant's philosophical system with reference to Descartes. The author explores Kant's system which raises many questions, particularly concerning freedom and the interaction of the two wills. If our definition of free will is re-evaluated and understood in a subjectivist sense, (much like the Copernican Revolution), Kant (and Descartes) provide a new concept of freedom as autonomy. Therefore, instead of preserving free will, these two philosophers produce a new understanding of it. The dual nature of the phenomenal and noumenal world continues to be a problem, but it remains so because of its very nature. It explains the human predicament: the cohesion of body and mind, and can go no farther.

From the Paper
"Causality is a complex issue for philosophers who want to maintain morality and God. Although Immanuel Kant logically shows the necessity of causality for experience, he is unwilling to dismiss the idea of freedom. After all, moral and ethical judgments can only arise from a free will, for only if one's will is free can one be held morally accountable for one's actions. Kant, therefore, attempts to provide a metaphysical basis for believing in a free will, while still supporting causality."

Tags:preserving, free, will, philosophers, produce, new, understanding, dual, nature, phenomenal, noumenal, world, human, predicament

Abstract
This paper will discuss the book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" by Thomas Kuhn and explain what he means by "paradigm shift" within the realm of interpretation of revolutions that occur in science-specifically- the Copernican Revolution. By examining how the relationships of the perceiver of the revolution helps to transform the revolution, we can see how this idea pertains to the way that ideas are influenced not only from the inventor or creator of the revolution itself, but in the efforts of others that support it.

Abstract
This paper explains that John Hedley Brooke, in his book "Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives", follows the evolution of scientific thought and learning, explaining the opposing religious reaction and the effects brought about by the increasing knowledge of provable scientific material upon the prevailing philosophy. The author points out that, although new scientific theories are met with intense opposition from the prevailing religious forces of the day, neither ever succeeds in displacing the other; rather frequently science is used to "prove" religious theory and religious precepts are used to give credence to the new scientific discoveries. The paper relates that Brooke draws a parallel between the reformatory nature of the scientific methodology and that of the Protestant Reformation, which can be seen as an endorsement of Copernican opposition to the suppression of thought exercised by the Roman Catholic establishment prior to the sixteenth century.

From the Paper
"In 1543, Copernicus proposed his sun-centered theory of the cosmos which literally and figuratively turned the universe inside out, and set off an age that is unprecedented in its genius and its revolutionary ideas. The scientific revolution that ensued set the stage for the modern world-view and was met by opposition from the established religion, especially the Catholic Church, which dominated scientific exploration during the previous three centuries. The author argues that this was not so much separatism, but "an unprecedented fusion of science with theology, resulting in more secular forms of piety." (p. 53)"

Tags:copernicus, darwin, political, catholic, system