Abstract
Francis Hutcheson suggests that people often extend good will and well wishes to others without any selfish intent. Kant, for his part, believes that people fundamentally act morally toward others because they would want others to act that way towards them; he also seems to argue that people who do good deeds (and, presumably, think good thoughts) towards others out of inclination are being selfish; true magnanimity comes when good is done out of duty. For his part, John Stuart Mill lauds Kant's contributions to philosophy, but he has a slightly different "take" of how people arrive at happiness through their human interactions. As he perceives it, the morality which should inform our interactions with other people is not a universal law - "do unto others as you would have them do unto you" - but a utilitarian one predicated on giving the greatest happiness possible to the greatest number. However, since Mill seems to have a hierarchical view of living organisms, it is conceivable that anything that makes the higher organism more unhappy than the lesser organism actually makes it impossible for truly selfless acts to be carried out by the "best sort" of individual. In any case, any moral precept that insists all actions are good which create the greatest happiness is one that makes it possible for nothing to be done completely selflessly. In the end, neither man believes that humans really do good (or wish good for others) for non-selfish reasons.

From the Paper
A Comparison/Contrast of Kant and Mill with Regards to Happiness Francis Hutcheson suggests that people often extend good will and well wishes to others without any selfish intent. Kant, for his part, believes that people fundamentally act morally toward others because they would want others to act that way towards them; he also seems to argue that people who do good deeds (and, presumably, think good thoughts) towards others out of inclination are being selfish; true magnanimity comes when good is done out of duty. For his part, John Stuart Mill lauds Kant's contributions to philosophy, but he has a slightly different "take" of how people arrive at happiness through their human interactions. As he

Tags:kant, mill, happiness

Abstract
This paper addresses differences between two versions of the famous categorical imperative in Kant's Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals. These formulations deal with the universal/objective and individual/subjective views of moral and ethical actions. There is some discrepancy between what ethical 'results' each formulation delivers, which is discussed in the paper.

Tags:PHILOSOPHY / KANT, contrast universal kant

Abstract
The following paper explores how reason can always provide a hypothetical imperative to achieve any action. This paper examines how it is the categorical imperative, that reason leads to and which is the morally right action, that should be followed.

From the Paper
"Reason seeks to reduce the world into an ordered, unified systems, and to generalize. Theoretical reason seeks to determine what is and what ought to be. Theoretical reason, according to Kant, "makes it possible to recognize what is. But reason has its practical employment in determining what ought to be as well.' (Kant, A 633/B 661) This roughly corresponds to the quests of the two philosophical disciplines of metaphysics and ethics. Kant believes that, "Human reason is by its nature architectonic." (Kant, A 474/B 502). "

Tags:function, reason, natural, world, rest, regression, conditioned, empirical, judgments, unconditioned

Abstract
This paper compares and contrasts Immanuel Kant's and David Hume's views on how we interpret knowledge of cause and effect. The paper explains that Kant's theory, known as transcendental idealism, allows for a more confident approach to how we examine the world because, while Hume argues that we cannot be certain of the world in any sense, Kant says we can at least be certain of the form our minds give to the world. The paper contends that Kant's epistemology of transcendental idealism shows how Kant made a more compelling and, at least, more hopeful argument that immediately challenged Humean skepticism.

From the Paper
Hume holds that human ideas outside the realm of mathematics, "matters of fact", are nothing but copies and reflections of "impressions" from experience; impressions are merely lively perceptions of experiences - visual, auditory, smell - that act directly as the source of our less lively ideas. In this finding, Hume issued a blanket denial of the certainty of traditional metaphysical subjects, such as God, a soul or a self, because they were based on the supposition that nature is uniform, that the future will simulate the past. He dismisses moral philosophical systems and hypotheses as having perverted natural understanding. He thinks that these theories of "monkish virtues" and "reasonings on this subject can only be drawn from effects to causes; and that every argument, deducted from causes to effects must of necessity be a gross sophism; since it is impossible for you to know anything of the cause, but what you have antecedently, not inferred, but discovered to the full, in the effect."

Tags:transcendental, idealism

Abstract
The paper first explains Kant's theory of universal law, and defines key concepts and terms. The paper then goes on to argue that Kant ignores conflicting duties and external factors in morality. This argument is supported by hypothetical examples and quotes from philosopher Thomas Nagel's book, "The Last Word".

From the Paper
"Human beings guide their actions by instincts and selfish desires. How could it be possible to act differently? The philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote The Foundation of the Metaphysics of Morals as a set of axioms [principles or postulates] that can be used in constructing moral laws based on the use of reason. Kant in his ethics takes his point of departure from the concept of good will: "nothing in the world can possibly be conceived which could be called good without qualifications except a good will." (Kant, 1959, p.9)"

Tags:autonomy, cant, ethics, evil, external, factors, foundation, foundations, good, goodness, law, maxim, metaphysics, moralist, morality, morals, nagel, philosophy, reason, theory, universal, values

Abstract
The paper discusses how the primary objectification of ideas through freedom is virtually impossible, since it happens outside of the mind's ability to empirically define the reality of their existence. In this manner, the scientific universe of discourse must invariably mean to limit the freedom of the human mind to grasp objects that are created through some sort of universal pattern in Nature. The paper explains how this virtually limits mankind to a certain sphere of influence on how natural phenomena appear in Nature and how one can understand the complexity of these mysteries.

From the Paper
"This philosophical analysis will seek to understand the premise of universal causality, which lies anterior to the premise of the human will or scientific discourse. Emmanuel Kant also saw universal causality as the premise for realizing that freedom was the basis of an idea, which could be manipulated due to the set laws of Nature. In this manner, the existing "object" mentioned in both of these quotes suggests that the human will is incapable of accessing the universal freedom, since it is an idea that cannot possibly be fully realized by human mind."

Tags:kant, universal, object

Abstract
This paper analyzes Immanuel Kant's ideas of philosophical Millenarianism. It explores how they are similar to Christian Millenarianism and Christian perfectionism. The paper discusses Kant's ideas and concepts and his belief that there is a plan to the universe.

From the Paper
"The concept of Christian Millenarianism is a future-oriented philosophy that posits the notion of the future or second coming of Jesus Christ .Within this notion the second coming of Christ is to occur within a specific number of millennia after his death. Such a perspective encompasses an apocalyptic fatalism with the close of a millennium although in the year and no such coming occurred. As one theology scholar maintains this vision has an affinity for worldly activism as believers are religiously obligated to strive for the righteous ..."

Tags:second coming, apocalypse, Christian, universal laws, morality, ethics, God, religion, state, politics

Abstract
The paper compares and contrasts the theory of subjectivity in Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Judgment" and Wolfgang Iser's "Interaction Between Text and Reader." The paper discusses the cultural context in which each theory surfaced and how Kant's and Iser's concepts and theories can be made operational.

From the Paper
"The purpose of this research is to compare and contrast the role of the subject and subjectivity for aesthetic reception and or production in Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Judgment" and in Wolfgang Iser's "Interaction Between Text and Reader." The research will set forth the cultural context in which each theory surfaces and the manner in which each commentator defines relevant terms and then discuss how their concepts and theories can be made operational in selected texts and thereby contribute to understanding and clarification of them."

Tags:Immanuel, Kant, Wolfgang, Iser, Ford, Madox, Ford, Jane, Austen

Abstract
Immanuel Kant had a supreme interest in making major political changes for the better of society. Kant's beliefs were what was considered morally right today should not be affected by the unethical behavior or judgments of yesterday. This paper discusses Kant's theory on pure and practical reasoning, how the individual applying this notion affects the entire human race, and can produce the end result of freedom and happiness.

From the Paper
"For example, the con artist will convince many elderly people that they will make a major contribution to saving the world by allowing him to use their checking account to deposit and take large sums of money. They claim they cannot use any more accounts in their name for insurance reasons. The elderly, wanting to do a good deed, gives the person access to his or her bank account. The con artist cleans out the elderly persons bank account, which had their life savings in it, and skips town. Only later, is it discovered that he uses fake identities. Kant's moral law says that we must not consider any previous experiences when making a decision to do what is moral. Lying and deceiving someone is definitely not ethical. Would it be unethical to use an elderly person who was aware of what was going on to catch the con artist, without the thief knowing this was a setup? If the decision to carry out the setup excludes all previous actions, then Kant's moral law suggest that lying and deceitfulness is unethical, although this procedure may prevent many other elderly people from becoming victims. "

Tags:Moral, behavior, Universal, History, Cosmopolitan, Intent, unconscious, reality

Abstract
This paper examines Henry Allison's critique of Kant's theory of rational judgment and then highlights and explains the difficulties Allison has with Kant's theory. Specifically, this paper explains Allison's view that, in contrast with Kant, one cannot have a "disinterested liking" toward the object being judged.

From the Paper
"The aesthetics of taste and the merits of rational judgment are often posited as binary opposites. Yet rationalism did not lead Kant to exclude taste from his system of philosophy. Instead, taste figures prominently in Kant's analytic, notes scholar Henry Allison in his text on Kant's Theory of Taste. (2) The theory of disinterested taste advanced in Kant's Analytic of the Beautiful is explicitly in dialogue with his German philosophic contemporaries. It attempts to define a pure judgment of taste, which Kant believes must be devoid of all interest. "Everyone has to admit that if a judgment about beauty is mingled with the least interest than it is very partial and not a pure judgment of taste."

Tags:Analytic, of, the, Beautiful, disinterested, taste, Kant's, analysis