Abstract The Iran Contra scandal is one of the greatest scandals in US government in recent memory. It was certainly the biggest foreign policy scandal during the 1980s. It involved at its heart two secret operations conducted by the executive branch of the United States government. The Reagan administration facilitated the sale of military equipment to Iran an enemy of the United States and considered a nation that sponsored terrorism. With the money from that sale a second operation was funded: Military aid was provided to the contra rebels in Nicaragua, aid that Congress had previously banned. This paper details the events surrounding the Iran-Contra scandal that took place during former President Reagan's term in office. The paper discusses why these actions were so scandalous and what it meant in terms of the US government's abuse of its power and its disregard for the Constitution. The paper contends that the scandal represents a major abuse of the constitutional authority afforded the executive branch of the US government, not to mention an affront to the checks and balances system that is supposed to keep each branch of government from amassing too much power.
Abstract The purpose of this paper is to introduce and analyze the topic of the Iran-Contra Affair. Specifically, the paper discusses what the Iran-Contra Affair was, how it developed, how it was discovered, the Congressional hearings, and the aftermath. The Iran-Contra Affair was really a series of covert operations initiated by the Reagan Administration and carried out, first, by the CIA and then the NSC. These affairs were investigated by Congressional committees after they became public and were as detrimental to the government as the Watergate affair because they subverted the Congress and the Constitution.
From the Paper "The Iran-contra affair is certainly one of the most notorious acts in United States governmental history. Many critics have likened it to the Watergate Scandal of the 1970s Nixon administration in terms of importance and sheer ignorance. One writer noted, "The Iran-contra affair raised serious questions about the nature and scope of congressional oversight of foreign affairs and the limits of the executive branch" (Editors 23448). After the Congressional hearings ended, numerous reports and recounting of testimony were published, including a 690-page report from the Tower and other committees who investigated the affairs. Caspar Weinberger (Secretary of the Defense) and several other participants were pardoned by President George H.W. Bush in 1992, and North and Poindexter's criminal convictions were eventually overturned, so very little actually happened legally to the main participants in the affairs."
Abstract This paper explains that, when Ronald Reagan became president, one of his most crucial goals was to stop the spread of leftist ideologies in Central America especially in Nicaragua. The author points out that, in Reagan's second term, this objective expanded into several separate entities concerning secret arms deals with the nation of Iran for the release of American hostages and the covert shipping of weapons and cash to the Contra rebels in Nicaragua. The paper relates that the amazing details of these allegedly illegal actions were revealed to the public and became part of the American cultural consciousness in the form of "Irangate". The author stresses that a long series of highly-publicized governmental hearings, special investigations and the prosecution of many upper echelon officials of the Reagan and Bush administrations revealed that some kind of clandestine operation had occurred, which would determine U.S. foreign policy for years to come.
From the Paper "The ultimate findings of the Tower Commission were not good for Oliver North who continued his covert operations with Iran for at least another year, all the while transferring arms and cash to his beleaguered Contra amigos in Nicaragua and shredding thousands of documents with the able assistance of his beautiful and loyal secretary Fawn Hall. When Oliver North was given complete immunity by the joint congressional hearings, he made it crystal clear to everyone involved that he was only carrying out his orders so as to defend his self-proclaimed "Operation Democracy"."
Abstract This paper explains that Oliver North, notorious participant in the Iran-Contra Crisis of the 1980s, represents a low time in American history and a shows how even the strongest and most secure governments can fall to scandal, mistrust and misuse of their power and influence. The author points out that North's years as a Marine in the 1970s helped form his conservative outlook and dedication to duty that served him so well in his governmental career. The paper relates that, even through the Iran-Contra affairs were scandalous, North did not seem to see his part in them as wrong, called the contras "freedom fighters" and thought funding them was a "neat idea".
From the Paper "Oliver North was born on October 7, 1943 in San Antonio, Texas. He was raised in Philmont, New York, and after he graduated from high school he attended the State University of New York at Brockport, and then the U.S. Naval Academy, where he graduated in 1968. After he graduated from the Naval Academy, he served as a U.S. Marine for twenty-two years. During this time he fought in the Vietnam War, and was awarded the Silver Star, the Bronze Star for valor, and two Purple Hearts for wounds in combat. He rose to the rank of Lieutenant Cornel during his time with the Marines. He actually only spent a short time in Vietnam during his career. Later, he was an instructor in basic training at Quantico Marine Base from 1969 to 1973. Then in the late 1970s he was posted at the Naval War College in Newport, R.I.."
Abstract Nicaragua is the largest of the Central American republics. U.S. imperialism has done a lot of harm to this Central American country, especially through the reality of the Contra war, which the U.S. supported and conducted throughout the 1980s. To be sure, the Contra war left an indelible mark on the Nicaraguan personality. The history of Nicaragua is a story about American supported authoritarianism and civil war. The violence that has been exported from the United States in this effort has had a drastic impact on the Nicaraguan people.
Abstract This paper examines President Ronald Reagan's foreign policy and how he began a program of destabilization in Nicaragua, serving the 'Contra' guerrilla forces in Honduras and Costa Rica and mounting an economic boycott. The history of Nicaragua is presented and how this ongoing foreign policy of destabilization is taking its toll on the country economically, socially and politically.
From the Paper "From the 16th century, Nicaragua was ruled by Spain. On 15 September 1821, the country became independent from Spain. US troops were call into the country in 1912, but remove in 1933, following a six-year guerrilla struggle to evict them, led by Augusto C"sar Sandino. The role of the US forces was taken up by the National Guard, led by General Anastasio Somoza Garcia, who detained power in 1935 and whose family ruled Nicaragua in an increasingly brutal, despotic and corrupt manner until 1979. After a 17-year guerrilla war, the last Somoza was defeat by the Frente Sandinista de Liberaci"n Nacional (FSLN). The 'Sandinistas' established a Junta of National Reconstruction, and began a program of agrarian reform, nationalization of industry, and massive health and literacy schemes."
Abstract Fredrick Appel is one of the few that carefully agrees with Nietzsche's alternative to democracy in his work, "Nietzsche Contra Democracy". This paper examines Nietzsche's proposal for a caste system. For Nietzsche, democracy creates an illusion were everyone thinks they are right and seldom seeks advice from their betters. In a well-ordered society, everyone has their place, and the lower-ordered human beings are honored to seek and follow the advice of their betters. In such a society, everyone is working together to reach a better ultimate goal, whatever that goal may be.
From the Paper "In a caste system, "the natural slave would flourish - in his own limited manner... in a properly ordered society the natural slave finds an intrinsic satisfaction in the fulfillment of his or her limited capacities" (Appel, 129). It is refreshing to think that even a man such as a slave could find a harmonious satisfaction with life, instead of forgetting his own significant virtues and attempting to strive for those he does not attain or need. This type of satisfaction that is born out of a caste system leads to everyone treating one another with respect. Jealousy and envy towards the Jones's is diminished, and a life trying to keep up with the Jones's is recognized as unsatisfying and, actually, never considered. In Nietzsche's words, "For the mediocre, it is happiness to be mediocre" (Appel, 129)."
Abstract This paper discusses two major political scandals namely, Watergate and the Iran/Contra Affair. It contends that both served to expose corruption at the highest levels of government and undermined public trust in politics.
From the Paper "The two most significant political scandals of substance since have been Watergate and the Iran Contra Affair under the Nixon and Reagan administrations respectively. In the former scandal critics of President Nixon maintain that he undermined the electoral process and tried to expand the powers of the Executive Branch beyond their constitutional scope the result of his knowledge and participation in the cover-up of an attempted break in into the Democratic National Headquarters at the Watergate ..."
Analyses the Reagan foreign policy, and how it consistently confronted the Soviet Union in ways that forced it to spend huge amounts of money on defense. Makes the argument that this is the main reason that the Soviet Union collapsed.
Abstract This paper highlights the portions of Ronald Reagan's foreign policy that confronted the Soviet Union in ways that forced the United States to spend large amounts of money. The foreign policy issues that are examined include Afghanistan, The Iran-Contra Affair, Reagan's support of Eastern-European Dissidents and Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative, (also known as "Star Wars"). Afghanistan is heavily analyzed, with a breakdown of significant historical points, such as the introduction of the US-made Stinger missile, which stripped the USSR of air superiority. The Iran-Contra affair is included as a way to demonstrate Reagan's willingness to confront communism everywhere. This was a marked policy shift from Jimmy Carter and caught the USSR off guard. The Strategic Defense Initiative is analyzed and is linked to an increased amount of money being spent by the USSR on research and development. The support of dissidents by Reagan is looked at as well, with the conclusion that with relatively little amounts of effort, Reagan's foreign policy fomented large amounts of political opposition to the Soviet Union in Eastern European satellite countries. This caused the Soviet Union to spend money combating this problem as well, with their spy apparatus. Definitive numbers are given that explain just how much the Soviet Union spending increased while Reagan was in office.
From the Paper "In the 1980's, a swirling of events converged to form a perfect storm that met the conditions for bringing down what Ronald Reagan termed the "evil empire." The first incident was that Old School communists in the Politburo sought to make an impression in Central Asia, but found stalwart resistance in The Gipper. Second, Reagan's abrupt shift from Carter's lax foreign policy took the Soviets by surprise, with the new administration's desire to challenge communism on every front possible; out of this desire came the ill-fated support of the contras, along with the hugely successful backing of Eastern European dissidents, namely the Solidarity movement in Eastern Europe. The third event in Reagan's foreign policy shift that took the world by surprise was the administration's renunciation of the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction; Reagan took the steps of beginning a Ballistic Missile Defense program, which he coined the Strategic Defense Initiative. The Soviets, with few options of recourse, were forced to make concessions that led to the implosion of the "evil empire" shortly afterward. Thus, by applying a policy of confrontation of spreading Communism, bleeding the Soviets in Afghanistan by supporting the mujahideen, and abruptly announcing a paradigm shift in American foreign policy with the Strategic Defense Initiative, Ronald Reagan certainly hastened, if not caused the downfall of the USSR."
An argument that the liberty to deviate from societal norms, the requisite for producing individuals, certainly yields maximal utility, for the most well-developed person has become the best human that he can possibly be, contra Mill.
2,133 words (approx. 8.5 pages), 2 sources, 2000, $ 66.95
From the Paper ". Intervention against personal liberty cannot promote utility. Even if it were granted that a proper intervention against individual liberty would maximize an individual's productive capacity, then men merely might gain more food, better houses, and an increase in total wealth. However, such men would not use any of their human faculties that separate them from animals; these mechanized unthinking imitators would have as much inherent human worth as an automaton. In contrast, the man who exercises his liberty to choose his own plan of life, even if less productive than that which could be centrally directed, uses all of his faculties: observation, reasoning, judgment, firmness, and self-control. Because ?it really is of importance, not only what men do, but also what manner of men they are that do it,? increasing our available material goods undermines utility if it requires the wholesale conversion of men into automatons or apes (962). Indeed, the liberty to deviate from societal norms, the requisite for individuality which produces well-developed human beings, as opposed to ape-like automatons, certainly yields maximal utility, for the most well-developed person has become the best human that he can possibly be. "
Abstract This is a detailed examination of Stephen Ambrose, and Douglas Brinkley's book "Rise to Globalism" that deals with American foreign policy from 1938 through the Clinton administration. The author looks at the different styles of both authors, and the topics they they cover independently in the book and contrast their evaluation of U.S. foreign policy, with three other books that have been written by different historians on the same subject, in order to garner whether or not the information they are presented is accurate.
From the Paper "According to Brinkley, economically the U.S. changed from being self-sufficient to being dependent on other countries for economic success, especially the oil producing nations. In 1973 all of the United States was gripped in an oil crisis causing numerous economic problems and long lines as people waited to get what gas they could. And all of this was not produced by some sort of actual shortage of oiling the earth, but an angry OPEC, which was a group of middle eastern oil tycoons. OPEC put an embargo on the U.S. and thus our global reliance on other countries oil sent us reeling. Before our global expansion no other country had this much control over the U.S. and it's economy."
Abstract This paper examines the notion of war and justice. It looks at the just war convention and the concept of honor that has existed for centuries. The author looks at the just war tradition, which are a set of commonly agreed rules of combat that often develop between two parallel enemies and examines how they have evolved over time. The author also looks into the writings of some early Christian thinkers on war and compares their theories to the modern conduct of war. The author then uses the example of U.S. involvement in the War in Nicaragua and the rules of the conduct of war.
From the Paper "The just war convention is as old as warfare itself. Early records of communal fighting point out that warriors used some ethical issues. They may have occupied consideration of women and children or the treatment of prisoners. Commonly they referred to considerations of honor: some acts in war have always been considered disgraceful, at the same time as others have been deemed honorable. Whilst the details of what is honorable vary with time and place, the very fact of one moral virtue has been sufficient to infuse warfare with moral concerns."
Abstract This paper examines the reason why President Ronald Reagen may have considered getting involved in toppling the Sandinista government of Nicaragua. It looks at the domestic and foreign policies of the administration and questions the possible motives for such a potential scandal. It looks at what the government thought it could benefit from involvement in this matter.
From the Paper "High-ranking members of the administration of President Ronald Reagan and President Ronald Reagan himself were amongst the people who violated United States laws during the Iran Contra Affair. The reasons for doing this may be speculative, it is certain that these people arranged the secret sales weapons to the terrorists of Iran. Why did Reagan do this? How did the government allow such actions by members of Reagan's Administration? Who was the Nicaraguan "contra" rebels? Was Reagan's hatred of communism so great that he placed America in danger?"
A developmental approach to understanding the Romanov dynasty and the conceptuality of growth behind the Russian monarchy. This paper focuses on Alexander I and Constantine under the personal guidance of Catherine the Great.
Abstract This paper looks deeper into the lives and personalities of individual monarchs in an attempt to achieve a greater understanding of the complex way they treated their subjects in post-despotic Russia. A study contra to most of the individual psychology based papers, with more of an attentive outlook towards the link of the monarchy of Russia and the autocrats as a leading caste more so than an individual. The paper shows how the monarchs chose to view themselves and how this affected their reigns. It views historiography grounded on over-arching theories, and leaves a closer, more psychologically-oriented picture of individuals who played extraordinary roles on the world's stage. Finally, it focuses towards conclusions of the effect on the monarchy and Imperial Russia through the upbringings of Catherine's two elder grand children as well as the gubernatorial interactions in history with the monarchs of Russia.
From the Paper "The soul of the immortal divine King Osiris becomes the soul of every Egyptian, as Christ becomes the soul of every Christian, so does the function of a monarch. A monarch is a social apparatus to will and decide and a model for all subsequent acts of free will and the ego of the individual. Originally attributed to law making functions a monarch has by modern man become the inner court of conscience. (2) The final century of the 300 year old Romanov Dynasty saw an unrelenting ineffective series of reigns. Incompetence is naturally not an especially rare quality in a monarch, as history shows us, but indeed, by definition, as they come to power through birthright and not merit the deleterious effects alone result in the occasional tyrant or foolish monarch."
Examines history of agency, need for & types of reform. Looks at its role in curtailing domestic spying, leadership, assassinations, covert operations and the Iran-Contra affair. Examines aspects of govt. oversight and counterintelligence.
2,700 words (approx. 10.8 pages), 14 sources, 1999, $ 95.95
From the Paper " REFORMS IN THE CIA
This research paper addresses the question: Should there be reform in the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)? Since the time of the Watergate scandals, the CIA, the nation's premiere foreign intelligence agency, has been the subject of intense Congressional and public scrutiny and criticism concerning whether it has abused its powers and otherwise failed in its duties. Reforms are needed at the CIA, not to protect the nation against its abuses but rather to strengthen the agency's ability to protect itself against penetration by hostile foreign intelligence agencies, to strengthen its intelligence-gathering and analytical capabilities and to prepare the CIA to meet the new challenges of the post-Cold War era.
